The topic of his main study is the shift from local government to local governance.
Across public administration much of the new focus in governance is on forms of
politics and managements that go beyond top-down, hierarchical options through
the greater use of contracts or partnerships (see Stoker 1998 ).
With respect to local government John ( 2001 ) argues that formal, enclosed styles of
decision-making are changing across Europe in response to the internationalization
of economies, the Europeanization of decision-making, new policy challenges,
and the move to moreXexible, less bureaucratic forms of delivery. In a broad sense
John concludes that there has been a shift from government to governance:
Across Western Europe there have been many changes in institutional structures, attempts
at coalition formation, stronger leadership styles, a more visible executive structures, new
management ideas and more of a focus on European liaison. ( 2001 , 168 )
In short, in response to new governing conditions, diVerent country systems have
tried to develop a similar mix of institutional changes and options. The commit-
ment to a similar range of reforms is far from even with some countries in the lead
on innovation and others lagging behind. But the pattern of change does not follow
the north–south divide identiWed in earlier institutional studies of comparative
local governance. Spain, the UK, Germany, and the Netherlands led the reform
charge in the 1990 s according to John ( 2001 , 174 ).
Other studies have been broadly supportive of the argument that the pattern of
change in local politics has been one from government to governance. Le Gale`s
( 2002 ) is the most skeptical and emphasizes diVerences in the trajectory of
European cities as well some similarities. In particular he argues that the
neoliberal turn in UK local government that started under the Thatcher govern-
ments of the 1980 s has taken it closer to the US model and that other parts of Europe
are not signed up to that model. He views the UK and Ireland as special cases in
Europe but nevertheless concedes that reforms favoring business partnerships and
new public management can be observed in many European cities. Moreover he
notes that reform trends ‘‘are rather tending to blur’’ the north–south divide favored
in the comparative local government literature on Europe (Le Gale`s 2001 , 262 ).
Denters and Rose ( 2005 ), taking in a wider sweep of Western democracies than
those in Europe alone, conWrm that a broad shift towards governance has occurred.
They note that three major changes can be observed. TheWrst is the widespread use
of New Public management techniques and public–private partnerships. There is
much more use of performance targets, internal and external contracting, and the
involvement of the private sector in the development and management of public
service programs and services. The second change is the bringing in of a wider
network of local associations, business groups, and private actors into the local
decision-making process. The third is the introduction of new forms of citizen
involvement. TheWrst trend is virtually universal across Western democracies,
although in some cases the adoption of changes appears more symbolic than
502 gerry stoker