right, which were more fatalist. With the rise of socialism in the late
nineteenth century, this pacifist standpoint was reinforced by a distinct
understanding of the inherent unity of the international working class.
War, argued the socialists, served only the interests of the bourgeoisie,
and workers should oppose it, and go on strike if necessary.^48 By the
turn of the century, socialism had become the dominant political
stream on the left.
Capitalism and socialism
In the nineteenth century, the most important revolution was not
political but economic. With the spread of democracy and the rise of
liberal nationalism, there were undoubtedly major political upheavals,
but nothing compared to the Industrial Revolution which originated
in the United Kingdom. Throughout this period of buoyant expan-
sion, unprecedented wealth was created and entire societies were
restructured.
Between 1500 and 1820, the economy of the United Kingdom had
grown faster than most economies in the world, at a rate of almost
1 percent a year (0.80 percent compared to a world average of 0.32
percent). From 1820 to 1870, this growth rate more than doubled
to reach 2.05 percent per year, compared to a global rate of 0.93
percent.^49 On an annual basis, such an increase in growth may appear
modest, but accumulated over five decades it produced major trans-
formations. In fifty years, the per capita income of Britain almost
doubled, rising from $1,706 to $3,190 (1990 dollars). By 1870, with
2.5 percent of the world’s population, the United Kingdom accounted
for 9 percent of world production.^50
Science and technological innovations contributed significantly to
this process of economic change, which gradually spread to Germany,
France, and the United States. The steam engine, in particular, multi-
plied the productive capacity of a number of industries. Overall, how-
ever, the techniques in use remained relatively simple, and production
continued to be predominantly labor-intensive. The revolution was in
(^48) Peter Brock and Nigel Young,Pacifism in the Twentieth Century, University of
49 Toronto Press, 1999, p. 116.
Angus Maddison,The World Economy. Volume I: A Millennial Perspective;
Volume II: Historical Statistics, Paris, OECD, 2006, p. 640.
(^50) Ibid., pp. 638–42.
The rise of the modern state system (1776–1945) 95