Hartmann von Aue 329Englishmen(New York: Garland, 1984), 1–40; Kelly De
Vries, The Norwegian Invasion of England in 1066(Wood-
bridge, Suffolk: Boydell Press, 1999); N. J. Higham, The
Death of Anglo-Saxon England(Thrupp, Stroud, Glouces-
tershire: Sutton, 1997); Stephen Morillo, ed. The Battle of
Hastings: Sources and Interpretations(Woodbridge, Suffolk:
Boydell Press, 1996); Ian W. Walker, Harold: The Last
Anglo-Saxon King(Stroud, Gloucestershire: Sutton, 1997).
Harrowing of Hell(Descent into Hell, Anastasis, Res-
urrection) Only implicitly and by allusion did the New
Testament speak of Christ’s Descent into HELLor into
LIMBOand of his purpose. (Matt. 12:40; Acts 2:24; Rom
10:7; 1 Peter 3:18). The formula never appeared in creeds
before the fourth century. In the West, its first mention
appeared about 404 in the baptismal creed of the Church
of Aquileia of the monk Rufinus (ca. 345–410). In the
THEOLOGY and liturgy of the Eastern churches, the
episode appeared early, in an EASTERand baptismal con-
text, and was contained in the formularies of some early
COUNCILS. The main narrative source, the apocryphal
Gospel of Nicodemus, whose second part was devoted to
the Descent into Hell, probably did not originate earlier
than the fourth century. It explicitly emphasized Christ’s
power over death and evil.
From the seventh century, the formula spread. In the
West it was notably promulgated by a series of councils
of TOLEDOand renewed in the ninth century by the Sixth
Council of Arles, under CHARLEMAGNE. The idea was
confirmed at the Fourth Lateran Council in 1215 and the
Council of LYONin 1274. From the late fourth century,
doctrine affirmed that Christ’s soul that descended into
HELL, while his body remained in the tomb. Medieval
Scholastic thought confirmed this, especially in Thomas
Aquinas’s Summa theologiae,III, q. 52, a. 3. By then it was
affirmed that the Descent into Hell took place during the
three days between Christ’s death and the Resurrection.
As for what was done by Christ in the Descent into
Hell, two main ideas became accepted: There he preached
to the imprisoned spirits about his defeat of evil, followed
by the salvation of their SOULS. Some of the earliest
church fathers, such as Clement of Alexandria (ca.
160–215) and ORIGEN, believed in a universal salvation,
affirming that this was offered in the GOSPELto all spirits
and only on the condition that they were of goodwill.
John CHRYSOSTOMstated that it was a HERESYto believe in
universal salvation after death, adding that only the just
under the old law were delivered, and the Gentiles who
had neither knowledge nor hope of the Redeemer might
be saved, provided they had not worshiped idols and had
known the true GOD. GREGORYI THEGREATreaffirmed
that opinion. It could only be the just. The story became
a standard part of the repertoire of dramatic performance
during the later Middle Ages.
See alsoDRAMA; REDEMPTION; YORK PLAYS.
Further reading:J. A. MacCulloch, The Harrowing of
Hell: A Comparative Study of an Early Christian Doctrine
(Edinburgh: T. and T. Clark, 1930).Hartmann von Aue(Hartman von Ouwe) (ca.
1165–after 1210)German lyrical and didactic love poet
Hartman von Aue, along with WOLFRAMvon Eschenbach,
WALTHERvon der Vogelweide, and GOTTFRIEDof Stras-
burg, was one of the four most important, diverse, and
prolific writers among Middle High German poets.
Besides lyrical poems, Hartmann wrote secular and reli-
gious epics and was important in the introduction of
ARTHURIANlegend and literature into Germany. One of
his major objectives was to reconcile the values of
KNIGHTHOODand CHIVALRYfrom the secular world with
the asceticism of monastic religion. Highly esteemed by
his contemporaries, he combined an elegant and imagina-
tive style with the use of linguistic innovation, creating a
standard for Middle High German writing.
Few historical records or references have been found
on which to base much of a biography. What does existThe Harrowing of Hell and Christ’s Descent into Limbo,
manuscript illumination, France, 12–13th century, MS. M.44,
fol. 11v, The Pierpont Morgan Library, New York
(The Pierpont Morgan Library / Art Resource)