356 Hulegu
spiritual sword represented by the pope remained superior
to temporal authority represented by the emperor. This
superiority could authorize an intervention by the pope in
temporal affairs. Huguccio was also interested in a hierar-
chy of the sources of law, the theory of contracts, etymol-
ogy, and MARRIAGE. He died on April 30, 1210.
See alsoCONCILIARISM AND CONCILIAR THEORY; PAPACY;
POLITICAL THEORY AND TREATISES.
Further reading:Wolfgang P. Müller, Huguccio, the
Life, Works, and Thought of a Twelfth-Century Jurist
(Washington, D.C.: Catholic University of America,
Press, 1994).
Hulegu(Hülegü Hulagu)(1217–1265)Mongol khan of
Persia
Born in 1217 the grandson of JENGHIZKHAN, in 1251
Hulegu was entrusted by his brother, the Great Khan
Mongke (r. 1251–59), khan of Persia, with the mission of
destroying the ASSASSINS. He conquered their stronghold
at Alamut and western IRAN. In 1258 he marched east-
ward and destroyed BAGHDAD, ending the ABBASID
caliphate and annexing IRAQto the khanate. Then he con-
quered SYRIAand parts of PALESTINE. When his army was
about to fight the MAMLUKSof EGYPT, he was summoned
to the assembly of the MONGOLprinces at the Mongol
capital at Karakorum, where his brother had recently died.
The Mamluks defeated his army with him absent at
AYN JALUT in Palestine, saving EGYPT from Mongol
attack. Hulegu was a Buddhist married to a Christian-
Nestorian wife, firmly opposed to ISLAM, and favorably
disposed to Christianity. He was vaguely allied with the
king of ARMENIAand the prince of ANTIOCH, as well as
receiving embassies from King LOUISIX of FRANCEand
the PAPACY. He was the founder of the dynasty of the
Mongol Il-khans or IL-KHANIDS,of IRAN, who ruled until
- He died in 1265 and was succeeded by his son,
Abaqa (r. 1265–82).
Further reading:Reuven Amitai-Preiss, Mongols and
Mamluks: The Mamluk-I ̄lkha ̄nid War, 1260–1281(Cam-
bridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995); W. Barthold
and J. A. Boyle, “Hu ̄la ̄gu ̄ ,” Encyclopedia of Islam3.569;
David Nicolle, The Mongol Warlords: Genghis Khan, Kublai
Khan, Hülegü, Tamerlane(New York: Sterling, 1990).
humanism The studia humanitatis,or humanism, was
the recovery and reevaluation of the classical culture of
Rome and then Greece. The ideas of Francesco PETRARCH,
with his interest in reading the classics, his epistolary con-
tacts with friends and various contemporary scholars and
rulers, and finally his own literary output, were fundamen-
tal to its revival. His literary work increasingly centered on
the rediscovery and application of the studia humanitatis.
Among these early humanists was some assumption that
humankind, with its strength and rationality, was capable
of choosing its destiny and place in the world. These ideas
ran counter to the alleged views of medieval education on
the subject of human capability on its own.
Humanism was much enriched by the discovery of
manuscripts from which classical texts corrupted over the
centuries could be reconstructed. Philology was especially
cultivated. Translations of the rediscovered texts were also
fundamental. These classical works were seen not just
as rhetorical and stylistic models, but also as ethical and
moral examples on which to base the formation of new
society in general and the education of citizens and sub-
jects in particular. Similar humanistic impulses had been
cultivated in the earlier Middle Ages, especially during the
CAROLINGIANRenaissance and the Renaissance of the 12th
century and were built upon by this later humanism.
See alsoALBERTI, LEONBATTISTA; BRUNI, LEONARDO;
CAROLINGIANRENAISSANCE; FICINO, MARSILIO; FLORENCE;
MEDICI FAMILY; MIRANDOLA, GIOVANNIPICODELLA; VALLA,
LORENZO.
Further reading:Hans Baron, The Crisis of the Early
Italian Renaissance Civic Humanism and Republican Liberty
in an Age of Classicism and Tyranny,2 vols. (Princeton,
N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1955); Eugenio Garin,
Italian Humanism: Philosophy and Civic life in the Renais-
sance,trans. Peter Munz (Oxford: Blackwell, 1965); Ben-
jamin G. Kohl, A Renaissance Humanism, 1300–1500: A
Bibliography of Materials in English(New York: Garland,
1985); Jill Kraye, ed., The Cambridge Companion to
Renaissance Humanism(Cambridge: Cambridge Univer-
sity Press, 1996).Humbert of Silva Candida (ca. 1000–1061)cardinal
Born in Lorraine in about 1000, Humbert joined the
monastery of Moyenmoutier and followed Bishop
Bruno of Toul to ROME. When Bruno became Pope Leo
IX (r. 1049–54), he employed Humbert at the papal
court as an adviser for ecclesiastical reform. In 1050,
the pope promoted him to cardinalate of Silva-Candida.
Humbert wrote the treatise Against Simony,which
was a strong denunciation of such evils in the church,
which he believed had its fundamental origin in the sell-
ing of offices and in appointments by lay rulers. In 1054
Humbert was sent to CONSTANTINOPLEby the pope to dis-
cuss problems of church unity with Patriarch Michael I
Kerularios (r. 1043–58). His conviction that lay authority
could not be imposed on the church and that the BYZAN-
TINEtraditional union of church and imperial state was
also at that heart of the evils he had already denounced.
All this led him to pronounce an EXCOMMUNICATIONon
the patriarch on behalf of the pope. This resulted in the
final breach between the Catholic and Orthodox
Churches. He died on May 5, 1061.
See also BERENGAR OF TOURS; DAMIAN, PETER;
REFORM, IDEA OF; SCHISM, GREAT(1054); SIMONY.
Further reading:Uta-Renate Blumenthal, The Investi-
ture Controversy: Church and Monarchy from the Ninth to