Hungary 359See alsoAGINCOURT,BATTLE OF;CRÉCY,BATTLE OF;
CONDOTTIERI, COMPANIES, AND MERCENARIES;CHARLESV
THEWISE;CHARLESVII; HENRYV; JOAN OFARC,SAINT.
Further reading:Edouard Perroy, The Hundred Years’
Wa r(1945; reprint, New York: Capricorn Books, 1965);
Christopher Allmand, The Hundred Years’ War: England
and France at War c. 1300–c. 1450(Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 1988); Jonathan Sumption, The Hundred
Years’ War,Vol. 1, Trial by Battle(Philadelphia: University
of Pennsylvania Press, 1990); Jonathan Sumption, The
Hundred Years’ War,Vol. 2, Trial by Fire(Philadelphia:
University of Pennsylvania Press, 1999).
Hungary(Magyarorzág) The heart of medieval Hun-
gary was centered on the Carpathian Basin between the
Danube and Tisza Rivers. For much of the later Middle
Ages, the kings of Hungary controlled regions in the
Balkan Peninsula and much of TRANSYLVANIA among
other areas, such as modern Romania. It maintained pos-
session of most of these territories until the arrival of the
OTTOMANSin central Europe in the 16th century.
The conversion of the MAGYARSor the Hungarian
people and the establishment of a Christian kingdom of
Hungary occurred during the second half of the 10th cen-
tury. A seminomadic state headed by the early members
of the Árpad dynasty had been established on the basis of
seven tribes and three “allied” Turkic tribes. This con-
glomeration had threatened and attacked Ottonian and
Frankish Germany at the beginning of the 10th century.
After defeats of Merseburg in 933 and at Augsburg or at
LECHFELD in 955, the Hungarian people and culture
began a profound transformation. Christianization was
the main driving force behind these changes. King
STEPHENI won the crown at the end of a bloody war of
dynastic succession and imposed a new Christian order
often established with harsh measures.
The 11th and 12th centuries saw the development
once again of new internal dynastic rivalries and threats
from the expansionist ambitions of the German Empire
and later from Byzantium under the KOMNENOIdynasty.
Béla III (r. 1172–96), though raised at the court of
Manuel I Komnenos (r. 1143–80), managed to maintain
Hungary and strengthen its ties with the West.
THE THIRTEENTH AND
FOURTEENTH CENTURIESIn the first half of the 13th century Hungary organized a
crusade against heretics in BOSNIAand converted the
CUMAN, later nomads from the East. The invading
Mongol troops of Batu Khan (r. 1227–56) failed to crush
the kingdom of Hungary. However, after a victory at the
Battle at Muhi in April 1241, Béla IV (r. 1235–70) fled
the country and took refuge in nearby DALMATIAuntil
the departure of Mongol troops, who had no real desire
to occupy Hungary. Béla IV’s main task then was the
reconstruction of a ravaged country after the serious
devastation caused by the Mongols. He founded the town
of BUDAnear Pest in 1243. The two towns became the
capital of Hungary from the end of the 14th century.
During the last 10 years of his reign, Béla had to share
power with his son, Stephen V (r. 1270–72), who in 1262
had been given the title of junior kingand took control of
the eastern half of the country. They opposed one another
in war in 1264–65, but neither gained dominance until
the death of Béla IV in 1270. These circumstances favored
a dispersal of royal power and the setting up of
autonomous territories under the control of the barons,
who already had gained power through their control of
the new fortresses built after the invasion of the Mongols.
The male line of the Árpád dynasty was extinguished
in 1301. After a troubled interregnum, the claimant sup-
ported by the papacy, Charles Robert I of Anjou (r.
1307/08–42), gained the Hungarian throne, bringing the
country under the Angevins of NAPLESand SICILY. After
winning a series of wars over the local baronage, he pur-
sued a policy of economic and political reforms. Stimu-
lated by the booming demand for gold and silver in the
early 14th century, new mines became a new foundation
of wealth for the then prosperous kingdom of Hungary.
Charles Robert forged political alliances with his neigh-
bors, reinforced by dynastic links. These finally gave
Charles Robert’s son, Louis I the Great (r. 1340–82), the
throne in POLANDin 1378 and allowed the grandson of
John the Blind (r. 1310–46) of Luxembourg, the emperor
SIGISMUNDto acquire the Hungarian throne. These new
dynasties sought to construct a collection of kingdoms in
central Europe, united in effect only by a personal union
around a reigning dynasty.FIFTEENTH CENTURY AND
THE OTTOMAN TURKS
One of Hungary’s main problems in the 15th century was
the advance of OTTOMANpower up through the Balkan
Peninsula. Sigismund’s army suffered a devastating and
humiliating defeat at NICOPOLISin 1399. Later John HUN-
YADIcarried on an effective series of wars of defense against
the Turks with his private mercenary army from 1439. He
won an important victory at Belgrade in 1456, which
halted the Turkish advance for decades. However, he died
shortly afterward during an epidemic. Because of the pres-
tige of John Hunyadi, his son, Matthias CORVINUS, was
elected king. Until his death in 1490, he was a successful
military leader and had one of the most cultivated courts
in all of Europe. After his death, Hungary fell into chaotic
and incompetent rule, civil strife, and economic decline
and was no match for the Turks in the sixteenth century.
See alsoBOHEMIA-MORAVIA;HABSBURG DYNASTY;PAN-
NONIA;VLACHS;WALLACHIA.
Further reading:János M. Bak, György Bónis, James
Ross Sweeney, eds. The Laws of the Medieval Kingdom of
Hungary,Vol. 1, 1000–1301(Bakersfield, Calif.: Charles