Jerusalem, Latin Kingdom of399Muhammad’s ascent to heaven, and immediately built a
modest MOSQUEthere. Under Caliph ABD-AL-MALIK IBN
MARWANthe DOME OF THEROCKwas built, and under his
son, AL-Walid (r. 705–715), the el-Agsa mosque.
CENTER OF THREE RELIGIONSJerusalem thus became one of the three Holy Cities of
ISLAM, with MECCAand MEDINA. The JEWSwere autho-
rized to live there again; they established their quarter
near the Wailing Wall and built a synagogue on Mount
Zion. Relations between the Muslim occupants and
the Christians remained relatively amicable under the
UMAYYADS, then under the ABBASIDS, despite frequent
minor problems and occasional violence. In 803, CHARLE-
MAGNEobtained from HARUN AL-RASHIDthe at least sym-
bolic possession of the Church of the Holy Sepulcher, of
which the patriarch of Jerusalem sent him the keys, and a
right of protection over the CHRISTIANestablishments of
PALESTINE. A Frankish law of 810 provided for a periodic
levying of alms that were sent to Jerusalem. The Frankish
“protectorate” was kept up in reality in the ninth century,
and as a shadow in the 10th century.
DIMINUTION OF TOLERANCEThe consequence of the BYZANTINE conquests of
Nikephoros Phokas (r. 963–969) and the campaign of
John Tzimiskes (r. 969–976) produced a more repressive
policy toward Christians. In 1009, the FATIMIDcaliph, AL-
HAKIM, confiscated the property of churches there, for-
bade Palm Sunday processions, and destroyed shrines
and chapels associated with Christ’s tomb. Some were
rebuilt in 1049 financed by Emperor Constantine IX
Monomachos (r. 1042–55). The emperors of Byzantium
took over the role of protector of the holy places. Gifts
from King STEPHENI of HUNGARYfostered the restoration
of several Latin churches and monasteries. But new
destruction took place when the SELJUKS captured
Jerusalem in 1071 and when the town was reoccupied by
the FATIMIDSin 1098.
CRUSADESOn July 15, 1099, after a siege of a month, the army of
the First CRUSADEtook Jerusalem. The capture of the
town was accompanied by three days of massacres of the
resisting Muslims and Jews with perhaps 20,000 victims,
and the pillage of Muslim sanctuaries. The crusaders
made Jerusalem, from which they expelled Jews, Mus-
lims, and non-Christians, the capital of the Latin King-
dom. GODFREY OFBOUILLONtook the title of “advocate of
the Holy Sepulcher.” The crusaders installed a Latin
patriarch and substituted Latin clergy for Greek clergy.
Many sanctuaries were restored and repaired. The Church
of the Holy Sepulcher was rebuilt in 1149 and in the
basic form it stands today. The Dome of the Rock became
a church, the Lord’s Temple. The town’s fortifications
were restored and strengthened and a citadel was built,
the Tower of David.
COMPROMISE
SALADINretook Jerusalem for Islam in 1187. The cru-
saders ruled it again from 1229 to 1243, making practi-
cally no changes to the urban structure save for the
conversion of the two mosques on the Temple esplanade
into churches and the use of other Muslim buildings for
Christian worship. After the reconquest by Saladin, the
Jews were readmitted and the Eastern Christians were
tolerated, but the Latins were expelled. In 1229, after the
treaty between the emperor FREDERICKII and the sultan
of EGYPT, al-Malik al-Kamil (r. 1244–60), the defenses of
the city were partially dismantled. Jerusalem was once
more in the possession of the Latins, except the Temple
esplanade, where the important mosques were restored to
Islam.A MUSLIM-CHRISTIAN SOLUTION
The equilibrium agreed upon by the treaty of 1229 did
not last. Deprived of most of its defenses, the town was
assaulted in 1239 by the Egyptian sultan’s troops, and in
1244 it was finally occupied by troops from the retreating
Khwarizm states. Back under the control of the sultans of
CAIRO, who in 1342, after a treaty with King Robert the
Wise (r. 1309–43) of NAPLES, allowed the FRANCISCANS
to settle on Mount Zion and take possession of the
supposed site of the LASTSUPPER. The friars were soon
granted the right to officiate at the altars and at the par-
ticular chapels of the Church of the Holy Sepulcher
assigned to the Latin Church and to assist Western pil-
grims. Save at rare moments of tension and conflict, the
flood of pilgrims did not slow much. The Muslims usu-
ally contented themselves with imposing a “right of
entry” tax to enter and move about. The MAMLUKSof
Egypt controlled the city until it was taken over by the
OTTOMANSin 1516.
See also BAYBARS I, SULTAN;JERUSALEM,LATIN
KINGDOM OF.
Further reading:Michael Hamilton Burgoyne, Mam-
luk Jerusalem, an Architectural Study(London: Published
on behalf of the British School of Archaeology in
Jerusalem by the World of Islam Festival Trust, 1987);
Moshe Gil, A History of Palestine, 634–1099(Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 1992); Oleg Grabar, The
Shape of the Holy: Early Islamic Jerusalem(Princeton, N.J.:
Princeton University Press, 1996); F. E. Peters, Jerusalem:
The Holy City in the Eyes of Chroniclers, Visitors, Pilgrims,
Prophets from the Days of Abraham to the Beginnings of
Modern Times (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University
Press, 1985).Jerusalem, Latin Kingdom of On July 15, 1099, the
crusaders conquered Jerusalem and proclaimed the Latin
Kingdom of Jerusalem. The majority of JEWSand Mus-
lims living there were murdered or fled. Those Muslims
who survived were expelled. JERUSALEM became the
capital of the new kingdom but remained unpopulated.