414Judaism
INTELLECTUAL AND RELIGIOUS WORKSSome of his contemporary Jewish intellectuals were suc-
cumbing to Greek rationalism and philosophy, which often
challenged and weakened their faith. These conditions
were reflected in Judah’s religious poetry, characterized by
a deep and often mystic yearning for and love of GOD. The
tragedy of his people was present in his nationalistic
poems, in which he depicted their past glory, displayed his
pain and sorrow at their desolation, and asserted his hopes
for their restoration. Many of Halevi’s religious and
national poems have survived in Jewish liturgy.
To counter the influence of Greek and Aristotelian
philosophy on his generation, Halevi wrote the Book of
Proof in Favor of the Despised Religionin Arabic. It was
translated by Judah ibn Tibbon into Hebrew. The Sefer
ha-Kuzarior the Kuzari(The book of the Khazars), as it
was called in Hebrew, remained a popular work in Jewish
religious thought. It was written in dialogue and
employed the historical and romantic theme of conver-
sion to Judaism early in the eighth century of the king of
the KHAZARS.
Halevi was not basically concerned with demonstrat-
ing that Judaism conformed to the rational, but rather
with proving its superiority over its two daughters, Chris-
tianity and ISLAM. Halevi argued that the God of Judaism
required no rational proof of his existence, since he had
manifested himself in history through the people of
Israel. Thus Israel supplied the world with ethical and
spiritual nourishment.
Halevi disinherited his only daughter and grand-
child, and left his family, friends, and possessions to
make a pilgrimage to Jerusalem. According to legend now
no longer believed, he was kneeling at the Wailing Wall
in Jerusalem when a galloping ARABhorseman rode him
down and crushed him to death in the early 1140s.
See alsoJEWS ANDJUDAISM.
Further reading:Judah Ben Samuel Halevi, Selected
Poems of Jedudah Halevi, trans. Nina Ruth Salaman
(Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society of America,
1946); David Druck, Yehuda Halevy: His Life and Works,
trans. M. Z. R. Frank (New York: Bloch, 1941); Norman
Roth, “Judah ha-Levy,” Medieval Jewish Civilization: An
Encyclopedia(New York: Routledge, 2003), 380–84, espe-
cially for his bibliography of editions and translations;
Yochanan Silman, Philosopher and Prophet: Judah Halevi,
the Kuzari, and the Evolution of His Thought(Albany: State
University of New York Press, 1995).
Judaism SeeJEWS ANDJUDAISM.
Julian of Norwich (Juliana) (1342–ca. 1416/23)impor-
tant English reclusive mystic
In her Revelations of Divine Love,the anchoress Julian
related that in May 1373, when she was 30 years old, she
suffered a severe illness. After she had received extreme
unction or the last rites, she experienced 16 revelations
and VISIONS of the crucified Christ, all within a few
hours. When she later wrote her Revelations,she was a
recluse at Norwich, supported by the BENEDICTINEcon-
vent of Carrow. Her ANCHORITEseclusion was a common
choice of life in 14th-century ENGLANDfor Christians try-
ing to attain spiritual insights. With little formal educa-
tion, and calling herself “unlettered,” Julian wrote or her
book was written for her in a beautifully simple style and
demonstrated a grasp of traditional THEOLOGY.
Julian’s Revelationsfrom about 1403 were a mixture
of imaginary and intellectual visions, with the character-
istics of mystical experience. According to them, her
visions fulfilled three petitions made in her youth. She
wanted always to have in mind the Passion of Christ, to
have a terrible bodily sickness by the time she was 30
years of age, and to receive the wounds of Christ or con-
firming sign of her “true contrition,” her “genuine com-
passion,” and her “sincere longing for GOD.” Her
revelations consisted of visions of a crucified Christ, per-
haps prompted by the sight of a crucifix that a priest had
left at her bedside. Through the Passion of Christ, Julian
was led to an intellectual vision of the Trinity and of the
universe, even seeing God everywhere. Thus she was
confronted by the harsh teachings of SINand damnation,
which she found hard to reconcile with God’s saving
GRACEin Christ. Nevertheless she accepted the tradi-
tional doctrine of eternal damnation. Little has been
found about Julian’s later years, including the date of her
death. She was last mentioned as a living person in a will
dated 1416. During her life she enjoyed recognition as
people traveled from afar to see and consult her during
times of PLAGUE, religious disunity, and the HUNDRED
YEARS’WAR.
See alsoMYSTICISM,CHRISTIAN.
Further reading: Edmund Colledge and James
Walsh, eds., Julian of Norwich Showings (New York:
Paulist Press, 1978); Denise Nowakowski Baker, Julian of
Norwich’s Showings: From Vision to Book(Princeton, N.J.:
Princeton University Press, 1994); Frederick Christian
Bauerschmidt, Julian of Norwich and the Mystical Body
Politic of Christ(Notre Dame, Ind.: University of Notre
Dame Press, 1999); Grace Jantzen, Julian of Norwich:
Mystic and Theologian(London: SPCK, 1987).Julian the Apostate(Flavius Claudius Julianus)(ca.
331–363)Roman emperor, military leader
Born in CONSTANTINOPLEin May/June 332, Julian’s efforts
to restore polytheism and PAGANISM, during his brief
reign from 361 to June 26, 363, borrowed some elements
from the Christian Church. His notorious edict excluding
Christians from teaching was even condemned by
pagans, including the historian Ammianus Marcellinus
(ca. 330–395). Maximos of Ephesus (d. 371/372), Julian’s