Kiev and the Kievan Rus ́ 425Khwarizmshahs (Khwarazmshahs) The Khwarizm-
shahs were the rulers of Khwarizm, or Khwarazam, a cen-
tral Asian province on the lower part of the Oxus River
near its delta on the Aral Sea in modern Uzbekistan. It
comprised the ancient Chorasmia and modern Khiva. Its
well-irrigated and productive agricultural region though
surrounded by deserts allowed it to be relatively secure
from attack and isolated from external cultural influences.
Its Iranian language, Khwarazmian, remained the general
language of the region until its evolution into a Turkic
dialect during the reign of the SELJUKKhwarizmshahs in
the beginning of the 11th century.
The title Khwarizmshah has been linked with a
semilegendary Iranian kings and was first used by the
dynastic house of the Afrighs (fourth century–995). Its
use was maintained by local rulers, regardless of ethnic-
ity or dynastic origins. By the end of the 12th century,
however, the title Khwarizmshah was applied specifically
to an independent and militarily powerful Islamic Turkic
empire.
HISTORYHistorically the Khwarizmshahs were the most important
dynasty to gain prominence in the system of government
developed by the Seljuks in Baghdad. From 1055 these
Seljuks had assumed the title sultanand became protec-
tors of the person of the ABBASID CALIPH. This system of
government gave autonomy to local governors, among
whom were the Khwarizmshahs, who began to rival the
Seljuks and even replace them as the protectors of the
caliph and the Islamic community.
The founder of the Khwarizmshah dynasty was a
Turkish slave who was eventually appointed the gover-
nor of Khwarizm. His grandson, Ala al-Din Atsiz
(r. 1127–56), was the true founder of the dynasty. He
subjugated neighboring nomads in the lower areas of
the Syr Darya and developed the military capabilities of
his Turkish forces. This military capability was the
base for the success of his grandson, Ala al-Din Tekish
(r. 1172–1200), who gained independence from other
Seljuk dynasties.
Called by the Abbasid caliph al-Nasir (r. 1180–1225),
Tekish marched west and destroyed the Seljuks in 1194.
Assuming the title sultan, he replaced them as protectors
of the caliph. His son, Ala al-Din Muhammad (r.
1200–20), expanded the empire to its greatest territorial
limits, all the way from India to IRAQ. From then on they
were in conflict with the caliph, who sought indepen-
dence from Khwarizmshahs. The climax occurred in
1217, when Muhammad captured BAGHDAD.
MONGOL CONQUESTMeanwhile, the MONGOLS, led by JENGHIZKHAN, turned
from their campaigns in China to attack the Khwarizmi
Empire. By 1221 they had taken Gurganj, the capital.
Muhammad fled for his life and died in obscurity. During
the next 10 years his son, Jalal al-Din (r. 1220–31), was
pursued from India to SYRIA, vainly attempting to resist
the Mongol conquest. Members of the family drifted west
and were absorbed by other Turkish peoples.
Further reading:Ghulam Rabbani Aziz, A Short His-
tory of the Khwarazmshahs(Karachi: Pakistan Historical
Society, 1978); V. V. Bartold, Turkestan Down to the Mon-
gol Invasion, 4th ed. (Philadelphia: Porcupine Press,
1977); Clifford Edmund Bosworth, “Khwarazm-Shahs,”
Encyclopedia of Islam 4.1065–1068; Clifford Edmund
Bosworth, The Islamic Dynasties(Edinburgh: Edinburgh
University Press, 1967), 107–110; René Grousset, The
Empire of the Steppes: A History of Central Asia,trans.
Naomi Walford (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers Univer-
sity Press, 1970).Kiev and the Kievan Rus ́ (Kuy-Ev [the Shore on the
River], Kyyiv, Kiyev) Medieval Kiev was a trading set-
tlement that grew to become a city on the west bank of
the Dnieper River in modern Ukraine. In the early Middle
Ages Kiev was a center from which Slavic and Khazar
raids were launched down the Dnieper against CON-
STANTINOPLEseemingly primarily to extract better trading
privileges with the BYZANTINEEMPIRE.
With the consolidation of the RURIKdynasty in the
later ninth century, these continued and were accompa-
nied by diplomatic contacts under OLEGand IGORI, and
the expedition of 907 was followed by a beneficial trad-
ing agreement in 911. Subsequent raids in 941 and 943
or 944 produced new treaties and closer ties. These
closer relationships between the Rus ́now centered in
Kiev and Byzantium can be clearly seen in the treaties
and in Olga’s visit, as regent (945–969), to Constantino-
ple. This was further exemplified when, as an ally,
Prince Sviatoslav (r. 962–971/972) attacked BULGARIAin
968 and when Prince VLADIMIRI the Great supplied
VARANGIANSand mercenaries to the emperor BASILII
in 988.CHRISTIANITY, THE MONGOLS, AND MOSCOW
With the conversion of Vladimir I, Byzantine presence in
Kiev increased. This was especially clear between 1019
and 1054, during the reign of YAROSLAV THEWISE, who
rebuilt much of Kiev in the image of Constantinople. The
city of Kiev flourished until it was pillaged by the MON-
GOLSin 1240. In the 13th century MOSCOWreplaced Kiev
as the focal point for Byzantine civilization in this vast
region. Despite the grave destruction suffered by the
town when it was taken and sacked by the Mongol
invaders on December 6, 1240, Kiev and its archiepisco-
pal see remained the residence of metropolitans and a
center of religious life until 1299 even under the domi-
nance of the Golden Horde. In the mid-15th century,
Kiev regained this religious role for the Orthodox popula-
tion of the new Polish–Lithuanian State after the division