442 Lechfeld (the Lech), Battle of
control of the Lebanese mountains. In 1365, in reaction
to a naval attack on ALEXANDRIAby the Latin king of
CYPRUS, the Mamluks turned on and persecuted the
Maronite clergy, even executing their patriarch in 1367.
The Mamluks from then on exercised indirect but effec-
tive control over Mount Lebanon and the Maronites
through local representatives. The Druzes, too, had to
adapt to the centralizing will of the Mamluks and accept
the end of their semiautonomy. The OTTOMANStook over
the region in 1516.
SeeLATINSTATES IN THEEAST.
Further reading:Philip K. Hitti, Lebanon in History:
From the Earliest Times to the Present,3d ed. (London:
Macmillan, 1967); Asad Abu Khalil, Historical Dictionary
of Lebanon(Lanham: Scarecrow Press, 1998); Kamal S.
Salibi, Maronite Historians of Medieval Lebanon(Beirut:
American University, 1959); Kamal S. Salibi, Syria under
Islam: Empire on Trial, 634–1097(Delmar, N.Y.: Caravan
Books, 1977).
Lechfeld (the Lech), Battle of This was a battle
fought near Augsburg between the Magyars or Hungari-
ans, who advanced to the banks of the Lech River in
BAVARIA, and the Germans, led by King OTTOI the Great
of GERMANYin 955. Otto’s victory ended Magyar raids
into Germany and increased his prestige, allowing him to
rule Germany uncontested and to receive an imperial
coronation.
See alsoHOLYROMANEMPIRE.
Further reading: Benjamin Arnold, Medieval Ger-
many, 500–1300: A Political Interpretation(Toronto: Uni-
versity of Toronto Press, 1997); Geoffrey Barraclough,
The Crucible of Europe: The Ninth and Tenth Centuries in
European History (Berkeley: University of California
Press, 1976); Boyd H. Hill, ed., The Rise of the First Reich:
Germany in the Tenth Century(New York: John Wiley and
Sons, 1969); Karl J. Leyser, Rule and Conflict in an Early
Medieval Society: Ottonian Saxony (London: Edward
Arnold, 1979).
legal science See CORPUS IURIS CIVILIS;LAW, CANON AND
ECCLESIASTICAL.
legate, papal Although Gratian’s Decretumin 1140 did
not mention a role for them, the office of papal legate
developed under the pontificate of Pope ALEXANDERIII
(r. 1159–81). By designating the pope as their direct
source of authority, Alexander defined these papal repre-
sentatives as having full powers. In the 13th century this
title became more and more restricted to those on defined
papal missions, such as CARDINALSor senior prelates of
the papal curia. A distinction was made between legatus
or “plenipotentiary representative” and nuntiusor simple
“envoy.” As angels of the pope legates were empowered to
appoint clerics to churches, local offices, and incomes.
Pope INNOCENTIII considered them almost to be an alter
ego of the pope. Thus they were superior in power and
authority to any bishop in whose diocese they had to
operate. Legates could be effective instruments of contact
between the expanding central government of the church
and all of CHRISTENDOM. The office was a main compo-
nent of the centralized structure of the Roman Church,
intended to improve ecclesiastical discipline and articu-
late papal power and control.
See alsoADÉMAR OFMONTEIL;ALBORNOZ,GIL,CARDI-
NAL; PAPACY.
Further reading: Guala Bicchieri, The Letters and
Charters of Cardinal Guala Bicchieri, Papal Legate in
England, 1216–1218,ed. Nicholas Vincent (Woodbridge,
England: Boydell Press, 1996); Jane E. Sayers, Original
Papal Documents in England and Wales from the Accession
of Pope Innocent III to the Death of Pope Benedict XI
(1198–1304)(Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1999).Legenda aurea See GOLDENLEGEND;JAMES OFVORAGINE.Legnano, Battle of This was a decisive battle fought
on May 29, 1176, near Legano, a fortified town near
MILAN, between FREDERICK I BARBAROSSA, who was
wounded in the battle, and the cities of the LOMBARD
LEAGUE, especially MILAN. The emperor’s defeat forced
him to negotiate a peace and an armistice for six years
with Pope ALEXANDERIII, who had excommunicated him.
He then had to focus on his German rival, HENRY THE
LION, whom he held responsible for this disastrous defeat.
Further reading:Thomas Carson, trans., Barbarossa
in Italy(New York: Italica Press, 1994); Peter Munz, Fred-
erick Barbarossa: A Study in Medieval Politics(London:
Eyre and Spottiswoode, 1969).lenses and eyeglasses Lenses were first used in
13th-century experiments in OPTICSthat grew out of the
rediscovered work of Greek scientists and philosophers.
In a further development, the ARABoptician IBN AL-
HAYTHAMin the 11th century noted the effects of looking
through glass. These ideas were found and used by
Robert GROSSETESTEin the 13th century in his studies on
light to develop theoretical and practical applications.
Grosseteste’s pupil, Roger BACON, explored these theo-
ries and developed some of the theoretical underpin-
nings for the creation of lenses designed for the
improvement of eyesight and for astronomical observa-
tions. At the beginning of the 14th century, LEVIBEN
GERSONused astronomical observations based on lenses
to study cosmic dimensions.
See alsoGLASSWARE.
Further reading:A. C. Crombie, Science, Optics, and
Music in Medieval and Early Modern Thought(London: