472 Mantegna, Andrea
to pay his soldiers and he accomplish his building
schemes, including the great mosque at Córdoba and his
palace, AL-MADINA AL-ZAHIRA. He died in 1002 on his way
back from a campaign against the Christians, who rejoiced
greatly at his death.
Further reading:Titus Burckhardt, Moorish Culture
in Spain,trans. Alisa Jaffa (London: Allen and Unwin,
1972); Richard Fletcher, Moorish Spain(Berkeley: Univer-
sity of California Press, 1992); Jan Read, The Moors in
Spain and Portugal(London: Faber, 1974).
Mantegna, Andrea (1430/31–1506) Italian court painter,
engraver
He was born to a humble family in Vicenza about 1431
and was educated at Padua by his teacher, Francesco
Squarcione. His first major work was the FRESCOcycle of
the Life of Saint James and Saint Christopherin the Ovetari
Chapel of the church of the Eremitani in Padua. It was
completed in 1459 but was destroyed by a bomb in 1944.
His style was influenced by the sculpture of DONATELLO
and the painting of Paolo UCCELLO, Jacopo Bellini, and
Filippo LIPPI.
His most important surviving religious works are the
Madonna and Saintsfrom about 1456 at VERONAin San
Zeno and images of the Martyrdom of Saint Sebastianand
a Madonna of Victoryfrom about 1495 now at PARISin
the Louvre Museum. He became the Gonzaga family’s
court painter in 1460. For them he painted the copula of
the Camera degli Sposi or “Bridal Chamber” in their
palace at Mantua in 1474. He died on September 13,
1506, in Mantua.
See alsoBELLINI FAMILY; PAINTING.
Further reading: Nike Bätzner, Andrea Mantegna:
1430/31–1506,trans. Phyll Greenhead (Cologne: Köne-
mann, 1998); Dawson W. Carr, Andrea Mantegna: The
Adoration of the Magi (Los Angeles: J. Paul Getty
Museum, 1997); Jack M. Greenstein, Mantegna and Paint-
ing as Historical Narrative (Chicago: University of
Chicago Press, 1992); Paul Kristeller, Andrea Mantegna,
ed. S. Arthur Strong (London: Longmans, Green and Co.,
1901); Andrew Martindale, The Triumphs of Caesar by
Andrea Mantegna in the Collection of Her Majesty the
Queen at Hampton Court(London: Harvey Miller, 1979);
Jane Martineau, Andrea Mantegna(Milan: Electa, 1992).
manuscript illumination SeeILLUMINATION.
manuscripts SeeARCHIVES AND ARCHIVAL INSTITUTIONS;
CODICOLOGY; ILLUMINATION; PALEOGRAPHY.
Manzikert, Battle of (Malazgird) This was a battle in
August 1071 in eastern ANATOLIAnear Lake Van between
the SELJUKTURKS, led by ALPARSLAN, and the Byzantines,
led by Romanos IV Diogenes (r. 1067–72). The emperor
was betrayed by a general and his Turkish mercenaries.
Forced to fight, he lost and was captured. The defeat left
all of Anatolia open to the advancing Seljuks. The office
of emperor was disputed and Romanos, though quickly
released by Alp Arslan, was deposed. Arslan repudiated
the treaty he had made with Romanos and moved en
masse into the rest of Anatolia, which was quickly and
permanently lost to the Greeks.
See alsoALEXIOSI KOMNENOS.
Further reading:Michael Ango Angold, The Byzan-
tine Empire, 1025–1204: A Political History,2d ed. (New
York: Longman, 1997); Alfred Friendly, The Dreadful Day:
The Battle of Manzikert, 1071 (London: Hutchinson,
1981); Speros Vryonis, The Decline of Medieval Hellenism
in Asia Minor and the Process of Islamization from the
Eleventh through the Fifteenth Century(Berkeley: Univer-
sity of California Press, 1971).maps Drawn in manuscripts on a range of topics and
places, medieval maps were numerous, at least 500 even
before 1200. Inhabited lands in them were represented in
schema that showed Asia, Europe, and AFRICA. The
notion of the roundness of the Earth was never contested
in the Middle Ages. Diagrams often depicted the Earth as
a globe divided into five zones. They were frequently done
as T-O maps, a circle divided into three parts divided by
rivers forming a T inside the circle.
The term mappa mundior map of the world generally
meant a more detailed image of the inhabited Earth, with
names of places and labels. Larger-scale regional maps,
some painted on walls, appeared in the 13th century and
plans of towns or lands were drawn when they were
involved in litigation. There were rough nautical maps or
charts of the Mediterranean and Atlantic coasts, which
illustrated ideas about the Earth, located place-names
mentioned by classical authors, aided teaching, and even
gave viewers an idea of their location with regard to
JERUSALEM, the traditional center of the Earth. Maps were
also intended for contemplation of God’s plan and of
humankind’s place in the world. They could symbolize
the pretense to learning and prestige of a ruler. In the
15th century, Ptolemy’s Geographywas published. With
the opening of a wider world, the contents of maps
evolved as knowledge of the world grew.
See alsoANTIPODES; GEOGRAPHY AND CARTOGRAPHY;
AL-IDRISI; NAVIGATION;PORTOLAN CHARTS.
Further reading:Evelyn Edson, Mapping Time and
Space: How Medieval Mapmakers Viewed Their World
(London: British Library, 1999); P. D. A. Harvey, Medieval
Maps(Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1991); J. B.
Harley and David Woodward, eds., The History of Cartog-
raphy, 2 vols. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press,
1987–1994); R. A. Skelton and P. D. A. Harvey, eds., Local
Maps and Plans from Medieval England(Oxford: Claren-
don Press, 1986); Donald Wigal, Historic Maritime Maps