music 509that, political goals seemed always to have preceded reli-
gious motives. Just before his death in 632, Muhammad
attempted to launch raids on the Byzantines to the
north. His successors continued this policy and made
great conquests.
Further reading: Abd al-Malik Ibn Hisham, The
Life of Muhammad,trans. Alfred Guillaume (Lahore:
Oxford University Press, 1955); Karen Armstrong,
Muhammad: A Biography of the Prophet(San Francisco:
Harper San Francisco, 1992); F. E. Peters, Mecca: A Lit-
erary History of the Muslim Holy Land(Princeton, N.J.:
Princeton University Press, 1994); Maxime Rodinson,
Muhammad,trans. Anne Carter, 2d ed. (London: Pen-
guin Books, 1996); W. Montgomery Watt, Muhammad:
Prophet and Statesman (London: Oxford University
Press, 1964).
Murad I(Muhammad I) (1319–1389)Ottoman sultan
Murad I began the OTTOMANexpansion in the Balkan
Peninsula, achieving spectacular results. In 1360 or
1362 he invaded Thrace and conquered ADRIANOPLE,
making it the Ottoman capital. The Byzantine emperor,
John V Palaeologos (1332–91), was compelled to pay
him tribute, which Murad used to expand his army. In
1371, Murad continued his advance into the Balkans
and defeated a coalition of forces from SERBIAand BUL-
GARIA. In 1385 he conquered SOFIAand forced the Bul-
garians into vassalage. As the Ottoman advance into the
Balkans slowed, Murad turned back to ANATOLIA, where
he attacked the SELJUKprincipalities in central Anatolia.
In 1388 he returned to Europe and defeated another
Serbian coalition at KOSOVOon June 15, 1389. He was
assassinated by a Serb eight days later or was killed on
the battlefield.
Further reading:Halil Inalcik, The Ottoman Empire:
The Classical Age, 1300–1600(1973; reprint, London:
Phoenix Press, 1988); Halil Inalcik, The Middle East and
the Balkans under the Ottoman Empire: Essays on Economy
and Society (Bloomington: Indiana University Turkish
Studies, 1993).
Murad II(r. 1421–1444, 1446–1451)successful soldier,
Ottoman sultan
He succeeded his father, Mehmed I (r. 1413–21), as sul-
tan of the OTTOMANTURKSin 1421. By 1425 he had
forced CONSTANTINOPLEto return to paying an annual
tribute again. In 1430 as part of a campaign in the
Balkans he seized THESSALONIKI, which the Byzantines
had sold to VENICEin 1423. Three years after this tri-
umph Murad married a Serbian princess to consolidate
his European conquests. The progress into the Balkans
was halted in 1443 by a Hungarian counteroffensive led
by John HUNYADI. Murad, however, stopped this Chris-
tian advance with a crushing victory at Varna in 1444.
He retired and temporarily left political affairs to his
son, MEHMEDII, whose first sultanate between 1444
and 1446 ended in chaos; Murad resumed control.
When the Hungarians under Hunyadi launched a new
offensive, he inflicted an overwhelming defeat on them
at the second Battle of KOSOVOin October 1448. Murad
died on February 3, 1451, at ADRIANOPLE. His victories
laid the basis for future Ottoman conquest, especially
the capture of Constantinople in 1453 by his son,
Mehmed II.
Further reading:John W. Barker, Manuel II Palaeolo-
gus 1391–1425): A Study in Late Byzantine Statesmanship
(New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1969);
Halil Inalcik, The Ottoman Empire: The Classical Age,
1300–1600(1973; reprint, London: Phoenix Press, 1988).music(musiki, musika) In the Middle Ages, as in
antiquity, music was oral and a metrical SCIENCEof num-
bers concerned with the proportions that regulate sounds
among themselves. Its growth in sophistication was heav-
ily tied to the liturgical needs and development of the
church, both Western and Eastern. Among the SEVEN LIB-
ERAL ARTStaught first in monasteries and then at univer-
sities, it belonged to the quadrivium, a group also
comprising arithmetic, geometry, and astronomy, not to
the trivium(grammar, RHETORIC, and dialectic). Within
the quadrivium,music was preceded by arithmetic, which
made music comprehensible. This correlation continued
well into the 18th century.
In the early Middle Ages, secular and religious music
was monophonic and oral. The earliest surviving
manuscripts with musical notes date from the second half
of the ninth century. During the CAROLINGIANRENAIS-
SANCE, a need to unify diverse peoples with diverse reli-
gious practices was recognized. They sought to impose a
more standardized or the Roman rite on liturgical music.
Monks needed clues to learn melodies, so notation was
added above the text as an aid to memory. These systems
of notation indicated pitch and rhythm and further
evolved by the 11th century.
For the liturgy of the OFFICEand the MASS, the musi-
cal script was that of plainchant. This was a melody that
followed the rhythm of the liturgical text and did not use
proportional division of lengths, a genre that appeared in
the 13th century. Two new kinds of music appeared in
the ninth century, both magnifying and elaborating plain-
chant: polyphony and tropes. Polyphony added to the
melodic line one or more extra voices that formed conso-
nances or dissonances with a principal voice. Tropes
added text under words, forming a sort of commentary or
gloss. Throughout the church consistently placed the
greatest emphasis on the text, not on the way it was per-
formed. Music was meant to witness and emphasize the
word of GOD. There is little surviving evidence of secular
music, which was clearly very commonly sung and
enjoyed.