nuns and nunneries 529community used isolation, fear, and stern disciple to
judge a postulant’s vocation or desire for the monastic
life. Benedictine orders, such as the CISTERCIANS, paid
especially close attention to the novitiate as an important
evaluative process. The MENDICANT ORDERSsuch as the
FRANCISCANSand DOMINICANSinitially considered it an
optional state. Not until the late 16th century did the
novitiate become standard for all orders of monks, NUNS,
and friars.
Further reading:Benedict, The Rule of St. Benedict in
English, ed. Timothy Fry (New York: Vintage Books,
1998); Isabelle Cochelin, “Novice,”EMA,2.1,032–1,033);
Giles Constable, Medieval Monasticism: A Select Bibliogra-
phy(Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1976); David
Knowles, Christian Monasticism (New York: McGraw-
Hill, 1969); C. H. Lawrence, Medieval Monasticism: Forms
of Religious Life in Western Europe in the Middle Ages(New
York: Longman, 1989).
Nubia(Nuba) Medieval Nubia was a Christian king-
dom in northeastern AFRICA up the Nile River from
EGYPT. Now partially covered by the blocked water of the
Aswan Dam, Nubia once extended from Aswan south to
Khartoum. Called the “Land of Kush,” with its capital at
Meroë. It had strongly influenced Egypt from the time of
the pharaohs. Conquered in the fourth century C.E. by an
Ethiopian king, it became part of the empire of AXUMand
Christianized by the sixth century by Melkite missionar-
ies and MONOPHYSITES.
Nubia soon possessed churches in the BYZANTINE
style, wonderfully decorated and still extant. Its church
was dependent on the patriarchate of ALEXANDRIA, but
the Nubians always used Greek and never switched to
COPTICfor the liturgy. The two kingdoms of the region,
Nobatia and Makuria, merged in the early eighth century
into one Christian kingdom with a capital at Dongola. It
had signed peace treaty with the ARABS immediately
before that union. The agreement allowed the Nubians to
retain their independence for the next seven centuries
and to prosper from commercial ties with Egypt and the
East. The MAMLUKS’ control of Egypt in the mid-13th
century resulted in Bedouin migration that led to an
Islamization of Nubia. The last king of Dongola was
deposed in the early 14th century. Its last Christian com-
munities disappeared around 1500.
See alsoCOPTS ANDCOPTIC ART.
Further reading: W. Y. Adams, Nubia: Corridor to
Africa(Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1977);
S. Burstein, ed., Ancient African Civilizations: Kush and
Axum(Princeton, N.J.: M. Wiener, 1998); W. B. Emery, Lost
Land Emerging(New York: Scribner, 1967); Yvan G. Lepage,
“Nubia,” EMA2.1,034; P. L. Shinnie, Medieval Nubia(Khar-
toum: Sudan Antiquities Service, 1954); D. A. Welsby, The
Medieval Kingdoms of Nubia: Pagans, Christians and Muslims
on the Middle Nile(London: British Museum, 2002).
numbers In the Middle Ages, the exegesis or interpreta-
tion of numbers in the BIBLE was based on the
Pythagorean, Platonic, and Jewish traditions, combining a
certain mysticism with arithmetic. Numbers were see to
represent ideas and even the fundamental principles of all
things. Each number possessed a hidden meaning corre-
sponding to an intrinsic quality of the number itself or to
the nature of what it was linked. For example, 1 desig-
nated GOD, FAITH, and baptism; 2 meant division and
opposition, but also unification, as in the two natures in
the one Christ; 3 was linked with the Trinity. AUGUSTINEin
his philosophy of numbers and interpretation of biblical
numbers by arithmetic laid the basis for numerological
reflection and speculation throughout the Middle Ages.
CASSIODORUS,ISIDORE of Seveille, BEDE,ALCUIN,
RABANUSMaurus, JOHNSCOTUSERIUGENA, and HINCMAR
of Rheims all used and speculated on numbers in their
works. In the 12th century, theologians such as RUPERT
OFDEUTZ, THIERRYOFCHARTRES, and HUGH OFSAINT-
VICTORall worked out allegorical and exegetical systems
using arithmetic, geometry, the numerical value of letters,
and the figures of numbers. These ideas were perpetuated
and elaborated upon in the 13th century by John Peck-
ham (1225–92), in the 14th century by Nicholas ORESME,
and in the 15th century by NICHOLASof Cusa and Mar-
silio FICINO.
Further reading:Michael J. B. Allen, Nuptial Arith-
metic: Marsilio Ficino’s Commentary on the Fatal Number
in Book VIII of Plato’s Republic(Berkeley: University of
California Press, 1994); Vincent Foster Hopper, Medieval
Number Symbolism: Its Sources, Meaning, and Influence on
Thought and Expression(New York: Cooper Square Pub-
lishers, 1969); Hanne Lange, “Numbers, Numerology,”
EMA,2.1,034; Karl Menninger, Number Words and Num-
ber Symbols: A Cultural History of Numbers,trans. Paul
Broneer (Cambridge, Mass.; M.I.T. Press, 1969); Robert
L. Surles, ed., Medieval Numerology: A Book of Essays
(New York: Garland, 1993).numismatics SeeMONEY AND MINTS.nuns and nunneries The word nunwas based on the
LATINterm nonnus,which meant a monk. It was used for
any female religious devotée, whatever the order to which
she belonged or rule she followed as a canoness, enclosed
nun, or sister. In the late antique world and sometimes
later, nuns were called “virile women” and more fre-
quently later “the brides of Christ.” A member of a reli-
gious community, the nun was subject to the rule that
governed for her house. She publicly received a veil from
a bishop and usually took vows of POVERTYand obedience.
Her life could be devoted to secluded contemplation or
charitable activities in the world. She was expected to
carry out the daily recital of the OFFICEor canonical
hours as well as participate in MASSwith her community.