546 paganism and Christianization
- A major basilica built in his honor drew a large
number of pilgrims.
In the 12th century Padua was part of the LOMBARD
LEAGUEand became an important member of the Guelf
party aligned against the emperor FREDERICKII. In 1237,
without outside Guelf help, however, it had to surrender
to the head of the imperial party, the Ghibelline feudal
lord Ezzelino da Romano (1194–1259), who set up an
authoritarian regime in Padua, VERONA, and Vicenza. At
first the town’s economy derived some benefit as part of
this territorial unity, especially for a regional textile
industry. But in 1256 Ezzelino was expelled. This led
to a new communal regime between 1256 and 1318.
During this period MERCHANTS, such as the Scrovegni
family, for whom GIOTTOpainted in the ARENACHAPEL,
flourished. As a prosperous town it had perhaps 30,000
inhabitants on the eve of the PLAGUEof 1348. Internal
division, however, led to a lordship by the Carrara
family (1337–1405), clients of the powerful Della Scala
in nearby Verona. The Carrara were patrons of human-
ists such as PETRARCH and the university. The
history of medieval Padua ended with the brutal Vene-
tian conquest in 1405. From then on it was part of the
Venetian territorial state.
See alsoMARSILIUS OFPADUA.
Further reading:J. K. Hyde, Padua in the Age of Dante:
A Social History of an Italian City-State (Manchester:
Manchester University Press, 1966); Benjamin G. Kohl,
Padua under the Carrara, 1318–1405(Baltimore: Johns
Hopkins University Press, 1998); Diana Norman, ed.,
Siena, Florence, and Padua: Art, Society, and Religion
1280–1400(New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press in
association with the Open University, 1995); Nancy G.
Siraisi, Arts and Sciences at Padua: The Studium of Padua
before 1350(Toronto, Pontifical Institute of Mediaeval
Studies, 1973).
paganism and Christianization As with any of a
number of polytheistic religions, medieval and late
antique paganism involved the ritualistic worship of
more than one god, unlike monotheistic Christianity,
Judaism, and ISLAM.
In Christian antiquity the term paganusually desig-
nated those who lived in the countryside and had resisted
conversion to Christianity. In the early Middle Ages such
pagans venerated ancient or traditional gods associated
with the forces of nature. In the Roman Empire there had
been an official cult of the emperor to whom sacrifices
had to be made. This was used as a test to expose Chris-
tians who sometimes succumbed to martyrdom rather
than offer a sacrifice to the emperor. In the third century
Egyptian, eastern, and Persian cults of Isis, Cybele, and
Mithras became popular. In northern Europe some of the
gods of the Germans and Scandinavians were Wotan and
Thor. For the Celts, there were Taranis, Nerthus, and a
group of female deities. These northern pagans appar-
ently met around sacred springs and trees to indulge in
sacrifices and ritualistic drinking. To use these natural
forces for human benefit or harm, the Celts and Germans
practiced MAGICin various forms, including incantations
and rituals for the healing of beasts, the fertility of the
fields, and military victory. People wore CHARMSand per-
haps used secret formulaic writing such as RUNES or
ogham. The Celts believed in the immortality of the soul;
the Germanic tradition believed in VALHALLAwhere hon-
orable dead warriors went after death. Many of these
practices and beliefs were, however, susceptible to assimi-
lation into orthodox Christianity.
Even after Christianization, prayer to such deities for
intervention in worldly matters remained popular at
springs, certain trees, rocks, and sacred caves, especially
during agrarian festivals at the June and December sol-
stices. Funerals and BURIAL continued to include ban-
quets and “diabolical” chants that had little relation to
Christianity. Pagan or superstitious practices clearly con-
tinued, even designating certain days as preferable for
certain activities, such as Fridays or Venus’s day for wed-
dings. To these social practices were added divination to
foretell the future and magical acts to guarantee protec-
tion against the forces of evil or to harm others. Incanta-
tions promoted feelings of love between people, and there
were formulas for healing the sick. Others were employed
for casting evil spells.PUNISHMENT AND REPRESSION
The emperor Theodosios I (r. 379–395) in the late
fourth century had banned classical and Oriental pagan-
ism. He particularly targeted sacrificial rituals, the fund-
ing of civic rituals, and the financial support of temples.
However, many aspects of these religions lingered on in
local forms and cults. The arrival of barbarians intro-
duced a new form of paganism. In the sixth century the
sermons of Saint Caesarius of Arles (ca. 470–542), a
work entitled The Correction of Rusticsby Martin of
Braga (d. 580), several letters of Pope GREGORYI the
Great, and the canons of councils demonstrated a strong
concern that paganism was not being eliminated.
Slightly later seventh-century PENITENTIALSdefined and
discussed penalties for such SIN. Around 1000, in his
canonistic writings BURCHARD of Worms expressed a
clear pastoral interest in the necessity for the suppres-
sion of pagan rituals and beliefs.
Much of these pagan practices or beliefs, well recog-
nized as contrary to Christian belief, were punishable by
death. At times they were suppressed by force. Numer-
ous kings and rulers destroyed sanctuaries and forbade
idolatrous cults and magic. Despite this violent suppres-
sion, there were other clerics, and even a few rulers, who
fostered more gentle attempts to convert people from
such beliefs and practices by assimilation, persuasion,
and example.