Robin Hood 625expeditiously. Travel by water was slower but often more
comfortable. Conditions in the Byzantine and Islamic
worlds were similar.
See alsoMAPS; TRADE AND COMMERCE.
Further reading:Brian Paul Hindle, Medieval Roads
and Tracks, 3d ed. (Princes Risborough: Shire, 1998);
Albert C. Leighton, Transport and Communication in Early
Medieval Europe, A.D. 500–1100 (New York: Barnes &
Noble, 1972).
Robert I the Bruce (1274–1329)king of Scotland
Born on July 11, 1274, Robert was the son of Robert
Bruce of Annandale (d. 1295) of the Anglo-Norman
Bruce family of Scotland. His family was among the
claimants to the throne on the death of King Alexander
III (r. 1249–86) in 1286. EDWARDI of ENGLANDinter-
vened and began the wars of Scottish independence. After
wavering between some acceptance of JOHN Balliol,
whom Edward had placed on the throne, and assisting
the rebellions of William WALLACE, he claimed the Scot-
tish Crown for himself against the wishes of Edward I. He
was supported by most of the Scottish nobles, except for
the Comyns family, as the champion of national indepen-
dence. He killed a rival, John Comyns (d. 1306), and was
hastily acknowledged as king at SCONE(without the pres-
ence of the stone of Scone) on March 25, 1306. He then
lost two battles to the English and retreated into guerrilla
warfare. His brothers were killed and his sisters were con-
fined to cages by the enraged Edward I, who felt deeply
betrayed by a man to whom he had shown favor.
After Edward I’s death in 1307, Robert revolted
against English rule and controlled most of Scotland from
- In 1314 he took EDINBURGHand defeated the inept
EDWARDII at the Battle of BANNOCKBURN on June 24,
1314, then captured Berwick in 1318. He then allied Scot-
land with FRANCEand sought its support against England.
Adopting English practices, Robert based his government
on cooperation within a community of the realm. He was
recognized as king by the treaty of Northampton in 1328
and sealed that with the marriage of Joan (1321–62), the
sister of the English king, EDWARDIII, to his son and suc-
cessor, David (1329–71). He died on June 7, 1329, and his
body was buried in Dunfermline Abbey.
Further reading:G. W. S. Barrow, Robert Bruce and the
Community of the Realm of Scotland,3d ed. (Edinburgh:
Edinburgh University Press, 1988); Seán Duffy, ed., Robert
the Bruce’s Irish Wars: The Invasions of Ireland 1306–1329
(Charleston, S.C.: Tempus, 2002); James A. Mackay,
Robert Bruce: King of Scots(London: Hale, 1974); Ronald
McNair Scott, Robert the Bruce, King of Scots(London:
Hutchinson, 1982); Alan Young and Michael J. Stead, In
the Footsteps of Robert Bruce(Stroud: Sutton, 1999).
Robert Grosseteste SeeGROSSETESTE, ROBERT.
Robert Guiscard SeeGUISCARD,ROBERT.Robert of Arbrissel, Saint(ca. 1047–1116)hermit,
preacher, founder of the Order of Fontevrault
Robert was born about 1047 at Arbrissel, in the diocese
of Rennes in FRANCE. Not a good student, he nonethe-
less, succeeded his father as the village priest. In 1076
after he supported an election to the bishopric of Rennes
of a cleric who was soon deposed, Robert had to leave for
PARISto resume his studies. In 1089 the deposed bishop,
Sylvester of La Guerche (d. 1093), returned to his see and
became a supporter of the GREGORIAN REFORM move-
ment. He recalled Robert, by then a priest, to Rennes to
assist him in reforming the CLERGYof BRITTANY. Robert
battled SIMONYand NICOLAITISM. In 1093, on the death of
Sylvester, Robert was so hated by the local clergy that he
had to flee to Angers.
A few years later he moved to the wilderness to lead
the ascetic life of a HERMITand was described as resem-
bling a wild lunatic. He gathered and founded an abbey at
La Roë. In 1096 he preached before Pope URBANII, but
by 1098, he had resumed his wandering life. As a skillful
preacher he drew a large number of penitents of both
sexes who were soon camping unsupervised in the woods
together. Robert was rebuked for allowing this potential
sinful practice. He then chose in 1101 to settle his follow-
ers in the valley of Fontevrault, not far from Saumur.
After further criticism, Robert, who refused to be called
an abbot, though his deeds and leadership practices were
autocratic, reordered his foundation more strictly and
divided it among convents for men and women, both
under a prior. He returned to preaching and attracted to
Fontevrault lepers, the sick, nobles, the poor, wealthy
matrons, and prostitutes.
In 1115 he entrusted his by now rich double order to
an abbess. On February 18, 1116, he fell ill and died on
February 25 in the priory of Orsan in Berry. There was a
violent struggle over his body, but it was returned to
Fontevrault by March 7, 1116. He had asked to be buried
among the lepers and poor at Fontevrault but instead was
interned in a place of high honor by the high altar. Robert
of Arbrissel did not have much of a cult and has been the
object of varied interpretations by historians. He has been
portrayed as a defender of the exploited by some and a
promoter of religious opportunity for women by others.
Further reading:Henrietta Leyser, Hermits and the
New Monasticism: A Study of Religious Communities in
Western Europe, 1000–1150(London: Macmillan, 1984).Robin of Courson SeeCOURSON, ROBERT.Robin Hood Robin Hood has been the most famous
of all medieval legendary outlaws. The obscure origins,
appeal, and identity of Robin Hood have remained