646 Sardinia
Further reading: Clifford Edward Bosworth, “Sara-
cens,” Encyclopedia of Islam, 9.27–28; Norman Daniel,
Islam and the West: The Making of an Image(Edinburgh:
Edinburgh University Press, 1960); Richard Fletcher, The
Cross and the Crescent: Christianity and Islam from Muham-
mad to the Reformation(New York: Viking, 2004); Richard
Southern, Western Views of Islam in the Middle Ages(Cam-
bridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1962); John V.
Tolan, Saracens: Islam in the Medieval European Imagina-
tion(New York: Columbia University Press, 2002).
Sardinia (Sardegna) Sardinia is the largest island in
the Mediterranean and is about 145 miles west of Italy.
Western Sardinia is made of plains and hills and is richer,
more populated, and more Romanized than the other
regions. Eastern and central Sardinia are mountainous,
wooded, and isolated with a smaller population who
struggled to survive on sparser resources. It was con-
quered by ROMEin 238 B.C.E. Held by the VANDALSfrom
the mid-fifth to the mid-sixth century, Sardinia under-
went only a partial Christianization.
Retaken by the Byzantines under JUSTINIANin 533,
Sardinia remained under Greek control until the 10th
century. Greek culture and religion had significant
influence on language and religious practice. By the 10th
century the island was essentially independent of CON-
STANTINOPLEand had to face almost constant attacks from
Muslim raiders, some of whom settled on the island. The
PAPACYclaimed Sardinia as part of the Patrimony of Saint
Peter and in 1015 encouraged the Genoese and Pisans to
try to expel the Muslims; they succeeded, but papal con-
trol never really took effect and the island became dis-
puted between GENOAand PISA. The papacy did reform
and reshape the church on Sardinia into a more Western
form, partially by sponsoring numerous settlements of
Benedictine monks. The influence of Pisans continued to
grow, and during the late 12th century, they took control,
but a smaller colony from Genoa also established itself on
the island.
Sardinia then became closely tied to the mainland
and attained considerable prosperity through its produc-
tion of cheese, grain, SALT, wool, metals, and hides. The
largest town, Cagliari, became an important trading cen-
ter in the western Mediterranean. The emperor FREDER-
ICKII made Sardinia into a kingdom for his son, Enzo
(1220–72), in 1239. In 1284 Genoa wrested control of it
from the Pisans. In 1325 the Aragonese, with papal spon-
sorship, began to take over, and with the completion of
their conquest in 1348, Sardinia remained under
Aragonese, Catalan, and Spanish control until 1713.
There were periodic successful rebellions, especially
under Queen Eleanora of Arborea (d. 1421), but at her
death, ALFONSOV regained control of the island.
Further reading:Marco Tangheroni, “Sardinia and
Corsica from the Mid-Twelfth to the Early Fourteenth
Century,” in The New Cambridge Medieval History.Vol. 5,
c. 1198–c. 1300,ed. David Abulafia (Cambridge: Cam-
bridge University Press, 1999), 447–457; Robert Row-
land, The Periphery in the Center: Sardinia in the Ancient
and Medieval Worlds(Oxford: Archaeopress, 2001).Sassanians (Sasanids) The Sassanians were a Persian
dynasty founded about 224 by Ardashir I (r. 224–40),
replacing the Parthian dynasty. From Fars in IRANthey
might have been distant relatives of the former Persian
Achaemenid dynasty. They replaced Parthian rule in Iran
and made their capital in Ctesiphon in IRAQ. Their gov-
ernment consisted of a centralized bureaucracy and legal
system. It used Pahlavi as the official language and spon-
sored ZOROASTRIANISMas the state religion. Zoroastrian-
ism especially regarded the king or shahanshah, as
chosen by GOD. He possessed a divine right to rule as
protector and as an impartial judge of his subjects. The
Sassanians fought frequent and devastating wars with the
Roman Empire but were conquered by Arabic Islamic
armies after the major Battles of Qadisiyya in 636 and
Nihavand in 642. Yazdegird III (r. 632–651), was the
dynasty’s last ruler.
See alsoBYZANTINEEMPIRE ANDBYZANTIUM;HERAK-
LEIOSI, BYZANTINE EMPIRE;ISLAM;LAKHMIDS.
Further reading:Nina G. Garsoïan, Armenia between
Byzantium and the Sasanians (London: Variorum
Reprints, 1985); Roman Ghirshman, Iran: Parthians and
Sassanians, trans. Stuart Gilbert and James Emmons
(London: Thames and Hudson, 1962); M. Moray,
“Sasanids,” Encyclopedia of Islam9.70–83; Ahmad Tafaz-
zoli, Sasanian Society (New York: Bibliotheca Persica
Press, 2000).Sassetta(Stefano di Giovanni di Consolo) (ca. 1390/
1400–1450)Sienese painter
Stefano de Giovanni di Consolo, called il Sassetta, was
born in SIENAbetween 1390 and 1400. He introduced a
new and original figurative language to painting, parallel-
ing contemporary Florentine PAINTING. Among his first
works was the polyptych for the chapel of the wool GUILD
of Siena (1423–26) now dismembered and scattered in
various museums. In the figures of the saints and
prophets or in the episodes of the predella, he was influ-
enced by SIMONE MARTINI, the LORENZETTI, Masolino
(ca. 1383/4–1447?), and MASACCIO. He created a highly
original synthesis of elegant late Gothic linearism and the
spatial depth of RENAISSANCE perspective. Sassetta
painted ALTARPIECES between 1430 and 1432 for San
Domenico in Cortona and an important polyptych for the
church of San Francesco at Borgo Sansepolcro between
1437 and 1444. His very personal style was derived from
various past experiences, and he used light and elegant
images to produce a medieval courtly world, even while
portraying religious scenes. His colors were delicate, and