wills and testaments 751William of Wyckham (Wykeham) (1324–1404)bishop
of Winchester, royal official
From a poor family, he was educated at Winchester and
became the secretary to the constable of Winchester Cas-
tle in about 1349. There he drew the attention of King
EDWARDIII and in 1356 became one of the king’s clerks
and a surveyor of the works at Windsor Castle and else-
where. In the following years he accumulated numerous
benefices and was keeper of several royal castles and
manors, which he rebuilt. Further recognized for his abil-
ities, William was made keeper of the privy seal in 1364,
bishop of Winchester in 1366, and royal chancellor in
- Making an enemy of JOHN OFGAUNT, he was forced
out of office for incompetence and lost many of his
benefices and was a useful scapegoat for the losses in a
bad period for the English in the HUNDREDYEARS’WAR
with France in 1371. He was cleared and pardoned of the
charges and restored to office at the accession of RICHARD
II in 1377, serving again as a moderating influence as
chancellor between 1389 and 1391. He founded and
richly endowed New College at OXFORDand Saint Mary’s
Grammar School at Winchester, including scholarships
for poor boys. He died in 1404.
Further reading: G. H. Moberley, Life of William
Wyckham, Sometime Bishop of Winchester (Winchester:
Warren, 1887); Nicholas Orme, English Schools in the
Middle Ages(London: Methuen, 1973).
William Telllegendary hero
According to the legend for which there have not been
found any corroborating documents, as a leader, though a
peasant, of the canton of Uri, William refused to obey an
order issued by Gessler, a tyrannical Austrian official. The
locals were supposed to make a payment of homage to a
symbolic cap hung in the town square of Altdorf. As pun-
ishment for his refusal to pay, Gessler forced William to
endanger the life of his son by shooting an arrow at an
apple placed on the boy’s head. William succeeded but
was arrested anyway for insulting Gessler. He escaped
while he and his guards were crossing Lake Lucerne.
Later in an ambush at a narrow pass, William killed
Gessler and became a leader of the Swiss military struggle
against AUSTRIA. William was first mentioned in legends
in the 1470s and his story emerged as fully developed in
the 16th century.
See alsoHABSBURG DYNASTY; SWITZERLAND.
Further reading:Walter Dettwiler, William Tell, Por-
trait of a Legend(Zurich: Swiss National Museum, 1991).
William the Marshal (1146–1219)soldier, first earl of
Pembroke and Striguil
Born in 1146, William was the landless younger son of
John FitzGilbert the Marshal (d. 1165). A frequent and
rich winner of tournaments, he was made a tutor in
CHIVALRYto Henry II’s eldest son, Henry the Young King
(1155–83). In 1189 William married Isabel, daughter and
heiress of Richard de Clare (d. 1176), the earl of Pem-
broke and lord of Striguil. In this manner he inherited the
rich and huge estates of the Clare family and the lordship
of Leinster in IRELAND. He was soon able to buy half the
lands of the earls of Giffard. He then became known as
one of the foremost KNIGHTSof his time and one of the
most powerful barons in ENGLAND.
Loyal to RICHARD I LIONHEART, until that king’s
death, William helped JOHNLACKLAND succeed to the
throne. John rewarded him with recognition of his title
earl of Pembroke. In 1205 he probably swore allegiance
to PHILIPII AUGUSTUSof FRANCEfor his estates in NOR-
MANDY. To escape John’s wrath though he might have
given permission for that oath, William went to Ireland
between 1207 and 1213. Remaining loyal to the Crown,
he helped govern England in John’s absence on the Con-
tinent in 1214. As John’s chief adviser, he was prominent
in his support for the prerogatives of the Crown in the
negotiations that led to the issue of the MAGNACARTAin
June 1215 and supported John in the ensuing civil war.
At John’s death in October 1216, William became execu-
tor of his will and regent for the young HENRYIII.
William’s efforts were instrumental in defeating a French
invasion and in gaining peace for England by 1217. After
turning over the regency to the pope and perhaps taking
the habit of a Templar, he died peacefully after an illness
of a few months on May 14, 1219.
Further reading: David Crouch, William Marshal:
Court, Career and Chivalry in the Angevin Empire,
1147–1219(New York: Longman, 1990); George S. Duby,
William Marshal: The Flower of Chivalry, trans. Richard
Howard (1984; reprint, New York: Pantheon Books, 1985);
Sidney Painter, William Marshal: Knight-Errant, Baron, and
Regent of England(Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1933).wills and testaments In the Middle Ages wills and
testaments were revocable acts in which persons enjoying
legal capacity declared their last wishes about the disposi-
tion of their property after their death. Men and women
could compose and have wills written if they were con-
sidered to be of sound mind and body, had the money to
pay the scribe or notary, and met all the other legal
requirements. It could be done orally or more formally
with witnesses. There were many different procedures in
Europe according to the many varieties of legal systems.LEGAL CONTEXT
Of classical Roman origin, the testament reappeared in the
12th century with the revival of Roman LAWand elabora-
tion of the notarial system. The document had to be writ-
ten by a proper authority and had to follow certain forms
and contain appropriate clauses in order to be valid. It was
a popular device for controlling one’s religious and secular
bequests and inheritable property. In Roman law it had
been used primarily to name an heir. Germanic traditions
and later written laws in the early Middle Ages gave people