education of the “lewd” [common] person. The poem
successively focuses on each of the Ten Command-
ments, the SEVEN DEADLY SINS, and the Seven Sacra-
ments, relying primarily on a series of amusing and
edifying exempla (see EXEMPLUM). Mannyng omits
many of the original’s tales, however, substituting local
ones or his own additions. The result is a poem 50 per-
cent longer than its French model, containing consid-
erably more didactic commentary.
Mannyng’s greatest skill as a writer lies in his narra-
tive technique, wherein he demonstrates a particular
ability to manipulate his audience’s emotions, espe-
cially by vividly detailing the torments of hell. For
example, a backbiting (gossiping) English monk is sen-
tenced to perpetually gnaw his own tongue, while a
proud lady is continually reduced to ashes by a burn-
ing wheel, only to be restored again in order for the
cycle to continue.
While Mannyng covers numerous spiritual infrac-
tions, he reserves particularly hostile treatment for the
rich who oppress the poor. Similarly condemned are
those who attend church for social intercourse rather
than for spiritual improvement. As is typical of monas-
tic literature of the period, women are often selected
for especially harsh treatment. Inevitably, they are cast
as providing a primary source of temptation, sin, and
damnation, luring men away from salvation. Finally,
clerics and monks are closely scrutinized. For these
Mannyng offers unfl inchingly acerbic criticism and
punishment for sins that include receiving bribes, cov-
eting worldly reward, and general moral hypocrisy.
His compassion tends to be reserved for the poor and
for children, although he advocates the need for strict
corporal punishment.
Metrically, Handlyng Synne generally conforms to
that of the French original. It is written in rhyming
COUPLETs, using an octosyllabic iambic meter. How-
ever, within this framework there is considerable
irregularity, due in part to the transitional, nonstan-
dardized nature of Middle English, but also to the lib-
erties Mannyng takes with his model. The poem is
remarkable for its direct, lively narrative, its accessi-
ble simplicity, and its insightful use of vivid metaphor
and exempla, as well as for its use of the VERNACULAR
and local identity.
FURTHER READING
Ho, Cynthia. “Dichotomise and Conquer: ‘Womman
Handlying’ in Handlyng Synne.” PQ 72, no. 4 (1993):
383–401.
Mannyng of Brunne, Robert. Handlyng Synne. Edited by
Idelle Sullens. Binghamton, N.Y. Center for Medieval and
Early Renaissance Studies, 1983.
Robertson, C. W., Jr. “The Cultural Tradition of Handlyng
Synne.” Speculum 22, no. 2 (1947): 162–185.
Schaaf, B. Marie van der. “The Manuscript Tradition of Han-
dlyng Synne.” Manuscripta 24 (1980): 119–126.
Liz Herbert McAvoyHENRY VIII (1491–1547) king of England
Henry Tudor was born on June 28, 1491, the second
son of Henry VII and Elizabeth of York. After his older
brother, Arthur, died, Henry became Prince of Wales,
and he inherited the throne in 1509. His fi rst act was
to marry his brother’s widow, Catherine of Aragon,
daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain. They had
received a special dispensation to marry, predicated on
the supposed nonconsummation of Catherine’s fi rst
marriage. On June 24, 1509, Henry and Catherine
enjoyed a joint coronation.
The young king’s happiness was complete when
Prince Henry was born on January 1, 1511, but devas-
tation followed as the prince died 52 days later. Fol-
lowing this, Catherine had a miscarriage and then
another son who died at an early age before giving
birth to a healthy daughter, Mary (later MARY I). Henry
felt unfulfi lled by the lack of a male heir, despite hav-
ing an illegitimate son with his mistress, Bessie Blount.
This son, Henry Fitzroy, duke of Richmond, was
friends with HENRY HOWARD, EARL OF SURREY, providing
inspiration for at least two of his poems.
The licentious Henry had a number of mistresses,
but by 1526 he had fallen in love with one of Cathe-
rine’s ladies-in-waiting, Anne Boleyn (ca. 1500–36).
The canny Anne, however, refused to give into the
king’s desires until he promised to make her queen. In
exchange, she promised to give him a male heir. Henry
burned with desire for both, and he began trying to rid
himself of Catherine. He asked Pope Clement VII for an
annulment; however, Clement was afraid to anger
Catherine’s powerful family, which included Holy214 HENRY VIII