332 12. Corrections and Prison Practices—Family ForensicsLiterature ReviewAmong those most affected by an individual's incarceration are the inmate's spouse
and children, as depicted in the case illustration of Nancy and Mike. At any given
time, over 1.5 million children have a parent who is incarcerated (Hostetter &
Jinnah, 1993). It is widely recognized that children who have an incarcerated parent
experience a host of behavioral and emotional difficulties. One reason tor such
difficulties is the absence of contact that children have with the incarcerated parent.
For various reasons, research has shown that children of incarcerated fathers rarely
visit their fathers while they are in jail or prison. Hairston (1989) reports that nearly
one-third of the incarcerated fathers in her sample had not received a visit from
their children since the time of their incarceration. Among the reasons given for
the absence of contact between father and child are lack of transportation to the
prison, opposition by the mother ot the child, and objection by the incarcerated
father. Many fathers in prison have reportedly made the decision themselves to
forego visitation with their children due to the potential negative effects that such
visitation could have on their offspring (Johnston & Gabel, 1995). In the study
conducted by Hairston (1989), approximately one-fifth of the fathers in the sample
reported that their children could not visit them because the mother of the child
objected.
Regardless of the reason for the absence of contact between the incarcerated
parents and their children, the lives of such children are dramatically affected by
this separation. Norman (1995) notes that many children of incarcerated parents are
affected by the separation for the rest of their lives. According to Norman (1995),
such children may experience difficulty with close relationships in the future and a
heightened sensitivity to separation and rejection by others. Moreover, particularly
for infants and toddlers who experience separation from their incarcerated parent,
separation anxiety often results (Johnston, 1995a). This is largely due to the fact that
young children develop their sense of security from the presence of their primary
caretaker (Johnston, 1995a). Therefore, when incarceration takes one parent from
the child, the young child often experiences the trauma of parental abandonment.
While it is apparent that children of incarcerated parents have needs to which
psychological and social service agencies should attend, there is a scarcity of such
assistance available in the United States (Johnston, 1995b). The Center for Chil-
dren of Incarcerated Parents is one service that pioneers therapeutic intervention
programs for children of inmates (Gabel & Johnston, 1995). This Center recom-
mends that treatment be targeted toward children who display signs of aggression,
withdrawal, anxiety, or excessive delinquent behavior such as lying and stealing
(Johnston, 1995b). The Center further advocates comprehensive assessments of
the children which include behavioral, developmental, familial, and medical needs.
While the Center for Children of Incarcerated Parents established such a program
in 1991 (i.e., the Early Therapeutic Intervention Project), it was terminated in
1993.