426 Appendix XII
Year Laureate(s) Discovery
1998 Robert F. Furchgott (b. 1916; USA) role of nitric oxide in the functions of the heart and blood vessels
Louis J. Ignarro (b. 1941; USA)
Ferid Murad (b. 1936; USA)
1997 Stanley B. Prusiner (b. 1942; USA) infectious prions
1996 Peter C. Doherty (b. 1940; Australia) mechanisms through which the immune system recognizes and attempts
Rolf M. Zinkernagel (b. 1944; Switzerland) to contain cells infected with viruses
1995 Edward B. Lewis (1918–2004; USA) mechanisms through which genes control the development of cells and
Christiane Nüsslein-Volhard (b. 1942; tissues into specialized structures and organs in the embryo
Germany)
Eric F. Wieschaus (b. 1947; USA)
1994 Alfred G. Gilman (b. 1941; USA) G-proteins, which regulate how cells receive and use other protein
Martin Rodbell (1925–1998; USA) signals
1993 Richard J. Roberts (b. 1943; UK) split, or segmented, genes
Phillip A. Sharp (b. 1944; USA)
1992 Edmond H. Fischer (b. 1920; USA) roles of the enzymes kinase and phosphatase to attach and remove
Edwin G. Krebs (b. 1918; USA) molecules for energy (glucose) release and storage
1991 Erwin Neher (b. 1944; Germany) single ion channels and their functions in cell electrical activity
Bert Sakmann (b. 1942; Germany)
1990 Joseph E. Murray (b. 1919; USA) organ transplantation to treat diseases such as kidney failure and heart
E. Donnall Thomas (b. 1920; USA) failure, including management of the immune response to prevent
organ rejection and host vs. graft disease
1989 J. Michael Bishop (b. 1936; USA) origin of oncogenes is within cells that become cancerous
Harold E. Varmus (b. 1939; USA)
1988 Sir James W. Black (b. 1924; UK) Black: mechanisms by which drugs are effective in treating diseases
Gertrude B. Elion (1918–1999; USA) such as heart disease and cancer
George H. Hitchings (1905–1998; USA) Elion and Hitchings: mechanisms of RNA function resulting in new
drugs to treat various diseases such as leukemia, malaria, and organ
rejection after transplantation
1987 Susumu Tonegawa (b. 1939; Japan) role of genes in the production and function of antibodies
1986 Stanley Cohen (b. 1922; USA) nerve growth factor (NGF) and epidermal growth factor (EGF),
Rita Levi-Montalcini (b. 1909; Italy) substances that regulate cell growth and differentiation
1985 Michael S. Brown (b. 1941; USA) mechanisms that regulate cholesterol metabolism
Joseph L. Goldstein (b. 1940; USA)