Assessing Leadership Style: Trait Analysis

The Psychological Assessment of Political Leaders

Adverbial Intensifiers

Adverbial intensifies include all adverbs that increase the force of a
statement. Commonly used adverbial intensifies are very, really, so,
and such. Adverbial intensifies add color to a speaker's remarks.
When used frequently, they produce a dramatic, histrionic effect.
Speakers who use very few adverbial intensifies are perceived by lis-
teners as dull and bland. Among normal speakers, those in the
midadolescent age group (fifteen to seventeen) have the highest fre-
quency of occurrence of adverbial intensifies. Women use this cate-
gory significantly more frequently than men among both normal and
psychiatric patient groups. Depressed patients use this category
more than other patient groups (Weintraub 1989, 64—70). Eisen-
hower was the most dramatic of the post—World War II presidential
speakers judging by his use of adverbial intensifies.

Direct References

Direct references include all explicit references to the interviewer,

the interviewing process, or the physical surroundings. Examples are

"As I said in answer to your previous question, I do not intend to run

for public office in 1996" and "It's a pleasure to meet with you in

such a beautiful conference room."

A high direct references score reflects the verbal behavior of an

engaging, perhaps manipulative speaker, one who avoids a particular

topic by talking about the interviewing process. When the frequency

of remarks directed at the interviewer is very high, the speaker may

appear to be intrusive and controlling. A very low direct references

score may indicate that the speaker is shy or aloof. In my study of

post—World War II presidents, I found that the greatest use of direct

references was by the friendly and engaging presidents Eisenhower

and Reagan. Not surprisingly, the somewhat shy and aloof Jimmy

Carter scored lowest in this category (Weintraub 1989, 170).

Among psychiatric patients, depressed and impulsive patients make

the most direct references because they make demands upon the

interviewer for assistance (Weintraub 1981, 31).

Nonpersonal References

Personal references are clauses whose subjects include the speaker

and people known to him. "I liked President Kennedy" and "Gerald