112 Grief and Loss Across the Lifespan
Development: Identity Development Versus Identity Diffusion
Ages 11 to 13 are often referred to as the “tween” years or early adolescence.
They comprise the years between the concrete operations cognitive style and
straightforward relationships of childhood and the abstract thinking, idealism,
and judgments of a true teen between ages 14 and 18. For the purposes of this
chapter, tween and teen will be used to refer to individuals in those age ranges
whereas “adolescent” will be used to refer to individuals in both age groups
together. Adolescence is a time of brain changes, consequent changes in hypo-
thetical reasoning and abstraction abilities, growing skills for impulse control
(though still not totally developed for most), and a clearer sense of self. By the
latter part of the teen years, individuals begin to consolidate their own identity
and often start to build intense relationships with romantic partners, as well
as with close friends. Adolescents take on more adult responsibilities as they
complete their school work with little assistance from parents, take jobs, learn
to drive, and even begin to vote. This adolescent period develops into what is
called “emerging adulthood” (Arnett, 2007).Biological Development
There is controversy about how teen and adult brains differ and what those
differences mean. There is relative consensus in the neurological literature that
differences, revealed by functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), among
the tween, teen, and adult brains have functional consequences. The most obvi-
ous changes in the brain are due to modifications in the activity of the prefrontal
cortex, and pruning (or thinning) of “extra” neurons during adolescence. Giedd
(1999) and Giedd et al. (2006) described changes in the structures of both the pre-
frontal cortex and the corpus callosum that are believed to gradually promote
more reflective thought, impulse control, and more rational decision making.
Jokes about teenagers being “crazy” are of long-standing, but newer
neurobiological understandings are changing the way we view this life stage.
Dobbs (2011) writes, “Troublesome traits like idiocy and haste don’t really
characterize adolescence. They’re just what we notice most because they annoy
us or put our children in danger” (p. 48). He ties adolescent risk taking to the
evolutionary need to search for new opportunities and to be open to taking
risks to grow. Similarly, Siegel (2013) also views adolescence as an important
life stage that promotes creativity, growth, and innovation. He coins the acro-
nym of “Adult-ESSENCE” or “Adol-ESSENCE” to stand for Emotional Spark,
Social Engagement, Novelty, and Creative Explorations (p. 12) to describe
adolescent core issues. In Brainstorm (Siegel, 2013), changing brain structures
(particularly, the development and integration of the prefrontal cortex) are tied
to the human needs for adventure and connection. Siegel views childhood as
a time when the child swings between rigid adherence to rules and chaotic
behavior. In adolescence, the rigidity of rules and safety alternates with impul-
sivity and risk taking.
Siegel suggests that adolescence is a time the brain integrates: The left and
right hemispheres of the brain communicate better and the cortex develops
more neuronal connections with middle structures of the brain. Integration