347successional management concepts to understand how ecological processes operate
over a range of spatial and temporal scales (Krueger-Mangold et al. 2006 ). These
concepts also create a linkage between ecological processes that are not functioning
as desired and potential tools and strategies that can be employed to reduce annual
grass persistence, reestablish structural and functional diversity, and ultimately
restore greater resilience to invaded ecosystems (Sheley et al. 2010 ; Chambers et al.
2014a ). For example, the Ecologically-Based Invasive Plant Management frame-
work ( http://www.ebipm.org ) has been adopted by numerous land managers and private
landowners throughout the Western USA. The framework uses an iterative fi ve-step
program that incorporates (1) site assessment, (2) identifi cation of the underlying
causes of ecological processes that are not functioning as desired, (3) application of
ecological principles to make decisions, (4) selection of appropriate tools and strate-
gies based on principles, and (5) design and execution of a restoration plan using
adaptive management principles (Sheley et al. 2010 ; Leffl er and Sheley 2012 ).
While these general principles help practitioners apply sequential interventions to
reach a desired ecosystem state, unique management strategies will likely be needed
for different Bromus species based on ecoregional and site-specifi c characteristics
(Herrick et al. 2006 ; Suding and Hobbs 2008 ).
Planning also involves identifying realistic objectives and criteria for success of
the project (Williams and Brown 2014 ). These elements are often overlooked or
implied, which can make success elusive (Suding 2011 ). One challenge in identifying
project objectives and criteria for success is that multiple alternative plant commu-
nity pathways and outcomes can result from management options (Grman et al.
2013 ). Consequently, it is important to explicitly consider what these pathways and
outcomes might be and recognize that nonequilibrium dynamics may best describe
how ecosystems respond to management inputs (von Wehrden et al. 2012 ).
Ecological Site Descriptions (ESDs), which are published reports that provide
information regarding the suitability of land for specifi c uses and their capability to
respond to management activities and disturbance ( https://esis.sc.egov.usda.gov/
Welcome/pgESDWelcome.aspx ), can help address this uncertainty. Although ESDs
do not currently exist for all areas invaded by Bromus in the Western USA, the US
Department of Agriculture’s Natural Resources Conservation Service houses draft
descriptions for many rangeland and forestland ecosystems. These descriptions can
also contain valuable information on successional dynamics of plant communities
and management alternatives, which are depicted with state-and-transition models
(STMs) (Provencher et al. 2015 ; Bestelmeyer et al. 2009 ). For example, based on
site-specifi c monitoring data, STMs show restoration pathways and indicate differ-
ences in resilience to disturbance and resistance to Bromus (Bagchi et al. 2013 ;
Chambers et al. 2014a ; Miller et al. 2014 ). With an understanding of potential site
dynamics, land managers, scientists, and other stakeholders can consider the costs,
benefi ts, and opportunities for implementing alternative actions.
Clearly defi ning how changes in the ecosystem will be assessed is also a crucial
component of adaptive management planning. Ideally, the ecosystem features cho-
sen to monitor are closely linked to project objectives and are measured at appropri-
ate spatial and temporal scales. Monitoring efforts should capture whether desired
12 Assessing Restoration and Management Needs for Ecosystems...