362
Stavi et al. 2008 ). Further research is needed to specifi cally address how various
control methods alter soil surface attributes and microtopography. Specifi cally,
there is need to further defi ne spatial and temporal patterns of germination,
establishment, and growth of Bromus , resident native species, and seeded species
under heterogeneous soil surface and vegetation conditions and over environ-
mental gradients (Chambers and MacMahon 1994 ).- Soil disturbances associated with mechanical control methods, revegetation, and
seedbed preparation can have tremendous impacts on seed banks, resource avail-
ability, and competition between B. tectorum and perennial grasses (Smith 1970 ;
Beckstead and Augspurger 2004). Timing, frequency, and duration of distur-
bances should be carefully studied for restoration sites to better defi ne restora-
tion opportunities. In particular, future research should emphasize how the short
period of time following soil disturbance can be utilized more opportunistically
for the establishment of desired species (Young et al. 1969 ; Giunta et al. 1975 ). - The importance of soil resource availability in the invasion process is generally recog-
nized (Davis et al. 2000), yet more mechanistic research is needed to develop a broader
understanding of how invasive species management infl uences resource availability
and recovery of native species (Jones et al. 2015 ). Although much research has empha-
sized experimental manipulation of soil nitrogen availability to reduce invasive species
abundance (Perry et al. 2010 ), future research will also need to clarify how combined
treatment applications infl uence soil nutrient concentrations and resident plant species
(Chambers et al. 2007 ; Hirsch- Schantz et al. 2014 ; Pyke et al. 2014 ).
As research continually innovates by exploring mechanistic aspects of reducing
Bromus populations and restoring ecological structure and function, adapting for
the future will require bridging the gap between research and management. This
may best be accomplished by in situ adaptive research and management experi-
ments of how annual grasses, desirable resident plant species, environmental vari-
ables, and edaphic factors respond to management treatments and activities over
environmental gradients and at multiple locations (James et al. 2013b ).
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