118 S. Goedeke and K. Daniels
in ED, and as such counsellors play a pivotal role in the management of
the practice.
It is also important to note that these guidelines, and particularly
access to information by offspring, have been influenced by the cul-
tural context in New Zealand. This includes recognition of the impor-
tance for the indigenous Māori population of genetic connectedness
through the concept of whakapapa, ‘a conceptual framework for...
considerations of relatedness, personhood and reproduction’ (Glover
and Rousseau 2007 : 119). Whakapapa establishes and determines an
individual’s status within the immediate and wider family and soci-
ety (Glover and Rousseau 2007 ; Lovelock 2010 ). Individual status
requires full knowledge of genetic heritage, as the individual is located
as the child of two genetic parents and as the offspring of the whānau
(extended family), hapū (sub-tribe) and iwi (tribe) (Daniels 2004 ).
Protection of whakapapa requires that donor offspring have ‘uncon-
strained access’ to information identifying genetic parents (Daniels and
Douglas 2008 ).
Finally, all ED cases in New Zealand need to be approved by the
Ethics Committee for Assisted Reproductive Technologies (ECART),
another government-appointed committee. Their decision-making is
based on the guidelines established by ACART. ECART has approved
55 applications between 2006 and mid-2012 and has reported 14
births as a result of ED by mid-2012. The majority of these applica-
tions were made by heterosexual couples or individuals, with a minority
made by lesbian couples and single women (ECART 2012 ). Note that
ED requirements allow lesbian couples to access ED only where both
women in the relationship are considered infertile, and single women
only if they are infertile. Gay men are automatically precluded from ED
as it would require a further party (surrogate mother) to be brought into
the relationship, and current surrogacy regulations state that ‘at least
one (of the intending parents) will be a genetic parent of any resulting
child’ (ACART 2013 : 4).
New Zealand’s unique situation regarding ED calls for a research
framework that includes the views and experiences of ED donors, ED
recipients, and clinic counsellors. The views and experiences of the
other main party—the offspring—will need to be considered as they