120 S. Goedeke and K. Daniels
specifications may serve to underscore the integrity of the embryo as
created from human gametes and as designated for human reproductive
use only. For example, the Act prohibits the development of embryos
past 14 days and the artificial formation of cloned or hybrid embryos.
Further, it stipulates that clinics have a ‘duty’ to stop the development
of embryos or hybrid embryos, and prohibits the use of embryos for
research purposes. Legislation and policy also draw on and acknowledge
the views of Māori, for whom embryos are sacred. Research on embryos
and embryo disposal are thus issues that need to be carefully considered
and managed, following appropriate tikanga (translated to mean cultur-
ally safe practices) in order to avoid breaches of tapu (referring to that
which is holy or sacred) (Thompson 2012 ).
In addition to regarding the embryos as valuable and special, many
of the donors in our study already regarded the embryos as children,
or in terms of their potential for life. Thus, the thought of discard-
ing the embryos was morally uncomfortable. Similar findings have
been reported in other studies (de Lacey 2007a; Fuscaldo et al. 2007 ;
O’Brien 2010 ; Söderström-Anttila et al. 2001 ). Paradoxically, how-
ever, studies have suggested that the perception of embryos as children
can cause donation to be both promoted and inhibited. It is sug-
gested that donation may be promoted because discarding is regarded
as akin to ending a life, or inhibited because views of embryos as chil-
dren may evoke concerns about the future welfare of these children—
children that donors will not be able to parent (de Lacey 2007a; Frith
et al. 2011 ; Melamed et al. 2009 ; Paul et al. 2010 ; Provoost et al. 2009 ;
Söderström-Anttila et al. 2001 ).
In our study, donors similarly expressed concern about the welfare of
the children that would result from ED. Indeed, their concern for the
welfare of the child was heightened, because many donors regarded the
embryo as not just a child, but as their child, or as a child that was still
in some way part of their family. The embryos were seen as the crea-
tion of the ‘couple unit’, made with the express intent of being part of
their family, and as their genetic embodiment. Furthermore, the chil-
dren resulting from ED were described by donors as their existing chil-
dren’s full siblings, even twins, since in many instances their children
had been conceived from the same batch as the frozen embryos. These