128 S. Goedeke and K. Daniels
as advantageous that the child would avoid inheriting their undesirable
characteristics (e.g. ‘they won’t inherit my bad teeth!’).
In this way, recipients drew on an adoption metaphor as a naturalis-
ing strategy, providing a framework for family-building, and simultane-
ously diluted the strength of the genetic tie, drawing on the gestational
ties to make the child ‘more their own’, and themselves as ‘more the par-
ents’ than is the case in adoption. These findings have many parallels
with those of Kirkman ( 2008 ), who reported that egg recipients tend
to minimise the role of genetics and claim maternity through gestation.
The fact that in New Zealand, it is the birth mother who is regarded as
the legal mother, was also an added advantage for recipients.
Some recipients also drew positive parallels between themselves and
adoptive parents, seeing themselves as in a position of power and simi-
larly offering a child a home. For some, receiving an embryo also meant
that they were helping donors who were faced with a dilemma of what
to do with their embryos. However, others pointed to the perceived
difference between their donors’ position and that of birth parents.
Birth parents were seen as compelled to offer their children for adop-
tion because of necessity; donors were not compelled to donate their
embryos, but did so out of kindness. This is related to a further theme
identified in this study: that of ED as a form of gift-giving versus a prac-
tice of mutual exchange.
Embryo Donation as Gift-Giving or a Form
of Mutual Exchange
Both donors and recipients resisted viewpoints of the embryos as
property that could be owned and transferred, and instead regarded
the embryos as having special status. They also viewed ED as a form
of gifting. As in other studies (e.g. de Lacey 2005 , 2007b; Kirkman
2003 ; Lyerly et al. 2010 ; Svendsen 2007 ), many regarded ED as an act
motivated by altruism and a desire to help others enjoy the benefits
of having children. In this way, donors were portrayed as benevolent
benefactors. Riggs and Scholz ( 2011 ), writing about sperm donation