68 C. MacGregor et al.
to their donor cells, can exchanged iPSC lines ever be completely
anonymous? (Takahashi et al. 2007 ). Furthermore, if researchers share
cell lines with other researchers, it may be impossible to guarantee to
research participants that their cells will not be used in research the par-
ticipant may personally object to (Lowenthal et al. 2012 ).
This is an area where researchers can be proactive and inform their
research participants that their iPSC lines could be shared, and reas-
sured that their samples will only be used in projects approved by rel-
evant ethics committees (Lowenthal et al. 2012 ; Aalto-Setälä et al.
2009 ). Furthermore, although the tissue sample and iPSC line will
have the participant’s genetic sequence, it could also be appropriate to
inform participants that their sample will remain anonymous to other
researchers. This means that the sample would have no unique identi-
fier attached, such as name, date of birth or other personal information
(Lomax et al. 2013 , 2015 ). However, as previously mentioned, the par-
ticipant’s DNA could betray the participant’s identity (Gymrek et al.
2013 ). The importance of sharing samples amongst researchers, com-
bined with the difficulty of ensuring restrictions placed by participants
on their own tissues, is another reason to encourage a consent process
which covers all potential future uses of iPSCs.
Animal Research
The use of animals in scientific research has been greatly contested in
recent years. Many people cannot accept the need for some animal
research, as views diverge sharply on whether animal experimentation
results in medical advances for humans, whether the exploitation of ani-
mals is ‘good’ science or whether the testing done on animals could be
achieved by other means (Matthews 2008 ; Savage 2001 ). To date ani-
mals are a central part of iPSC research. One of the most common uses
for animals in research is when iPSCs are injected into mice to observe
the formation of a human cell-derived tumour (Muller et al. 2010 ).
Consequently, all consent recommendations for iPSCs require specifi-
cation of any animal involvement. Research on animals remain a cru-
cial aspect of iPSC research and will be a critical part in the pre-clinical