Molecular Characterization and Management of Shoot and Fruit Borer Conogethes ... 223
been made on all putative species within C. punc-
tiferalis species complex. Although C. punctife-
ralis is not listed in the European Commission
(EC) plant Health Directive nor in any of the
European and Mediterranean plant protection
organization (EPPO) lists, it is an important quar-
antine pest. Being a highly polyphagous pest,
larvae of C. punctiferalis attack fruits, seeds,
and stems of diverse plants. While much of the
species distribution is in the subtropics, C. punc-
tiferalis has also been recorded from Hokkaido
prefecture, North Japan (Inoue and Yamanaka
2006 ), and north China (CABI 2011). Current-
ly C. punctiferalis is a serious pest for several
plants of economic importance for more than two
centuries worldwide.
Management
Since many plants serve as alternate hosts, the
pest has adapted well in agroecosystems. So,
tactfully one has to tackle this pest. Individual
methods like cultural, mechanical, biological,
and chemical are partially effective in keeping
this pest below the economic threshold level.
Hence, an integrated approach is a must to man-
age this pest. Some of the cultural practices like
increased planting distance reduced the pest
damage (Sharma et al.1992). Reducing the ni-
trogenous fertilizer levels also minimizes the pest
damage to a greater extent (Chakravarthy and
Thyagaraj 1999 ). Clean cultivation in cardamom
plantations can reduce the borer damage (Sharma
1992 ). Mechanical methods also checked the pest
to the extent of 5–10 % (Butani 1978 ; Tomomatsu
et al. 1995 ; Chakravarthy et al. 1997 ; Boo 1998 )
in crops like castor and pomegranate.
Some predators and parasites were also identi-
fied and can be exploited in the management of
this pest (Clausen 1927 ; Rodrigo 1940 ; Abe and
Sanari 1992 ; Anandraj and Peter 1996 ). Inter-
cropping is an important tool for C. punctiferalis
management. Intercropping is based on the prin-
ciple of reducing pests by increasing diversity in
an agroecosystem. In semiarid tropics in India
introducing cluster bean, cowpea, blackgram,
and/or groundnut as intercrops in castor (1:2
proportions) reduced C. punctiferalis infestation
and build up of natural enemies of crop pests has
been recorded (Rao et al. 2012 ). There are prov-
en insecticides that can be used (Rama 1980 ; He
1997 ; Chakravarthy et al. 1997 ; Thyagaraj 2003 ).
Individual management methods were evaluated
and compared with the integrated method (Thya-
garaj 2003 ) in cardamom plantations in Western
Ghats of Karnataka. Cardamom is an export ori-
ented crop, residual effects of toxic compounds
are to be avoided or carefully used (Devasahay-
am 1998 ; Thyagaraj 2003 ).
Therefore, an integrated approach embracing
thrashing (removing dried leaves, suckers, pan-
icle, etc., during February and March), and the
timely spraying of monocrotophos 36 % SL @
15 ml/10 L of water (March and April) followed
by spraying phosalone 30 EC. @ 20 ml/10 L of
water twice at an interval of 25–30 days after
each spray could be adopted for better, eco-
nomical, and ecofriendly management of the
pest (Krishnamurthy et al.1989; Devasahayam
1998 ; Thyagaraj 2003 ) in cardamom planta-
tions. The pesticide effect to C. punctiferalis of
2 % thiacloprid DP was tested in Chestnut Or-
chard in July, 2010 in China. Results showed
that orchards sprayed with 2 %Thiacloprid DP
achieved significant results to kill the borer. The
killing efficiency became stronger with the dose
increased (Yuan Yuan et al. 2011 ). The castor
ecosystem is entirely different from cardamomTable 5 Interceptions of Conogethes punctiferalis by
the PHSI in England and Wales between 2007 and 2011.
(Anastariq 2012)
Host Origin Year(s)
Annona squamosa
(sugar apple)
India 2011Mangifera indica
(mango)
India 2011Psidium guajava
(guava)
India 2011Psidium guajava Pakistan 2008 (twice),
2009 (twice),
2011 (eight times)
Psidium guajava Sri Lanka 2011
Psidium sp. Thailand 2011
Psidium sp. Unknown 2007