Status and Management of Three Major Insect Pests of Coconut in the Tropics and Subtropics 375
recover completely. Further, BHC attack results in
heavy yield loss (> 50 %), and the infested palms
can regain the normal yield potential during the
fourth year following the pest attack, provided the
pest infestation is brought under control (Chan-
drika Mohan et al. 2010 ).
Management
Cultural and Chemical Control
The early stage of the pest, artificial defoliation
such as cutting and destruction of lower fronds
can delay the infestation (Perera 1989 ). Original-
ly, management of the species was accomplished
by removing the infested fronds of the coconut
palms or using light traps in order to physically
remove the infestation from the palm. However,
frond removal reduces the palm’s yield drastical-
ly, and does not guarantee to resolve the infesta-
tion (Cork and Hall 1998 ). Chemical insecticides
are of course used in the control. Trunk injection
of Monocrotophos of tall palms at 3–6 g of active
ingredient per palm was translocated and accu-
mulated in the leaves in quantities sufficient to
kill the BHC, and experimental palms indicated
that the insecticidal effect persists for about 6
months (Kanagarathnam and Pinto 1985 ); there-
fore, it is suggested that this treatment would be
adequate to control a succession of larvae hatch-
ing out of eggs over a period of time. However, al-
ternative methods to chemicals have been sought
out in order to reduce the chemical residues on
the produced fruit, as well as maintain the health
of predatory animals and beneficial parasitoids.
Another method is use of botanicals and biopes-
ticides against O. arenosella and are come from
different forms. Biopesticides have proven to be
as effective as chemical pesticides in many cases.
The control of the BHC has been accomplished
with the use of both garlic- and neem-based
biopesticides in India.A commercial formulation
of soluneem was evaluated and recommended to
use as application through root feeding. These
treatments act as poison to the species and are ad-
ministered as O. arenosella consume the leaves.
In studies, reduction of all stages of larvae as well
as pupae were observed and drastically reduced
the damage incurred by the palms. Application
of organic farming practices also resulted in the
reduction of pest infestation in applied gardens.
Chakravarthy et al. ( 2012 ) evaluated the combina-
tion of organic manure and biopesticide applica-
tion with synthetic pesticides and they found that
less number of infested palms and low defoliation
in organic manure biopesticide applied fields.Biological Control
Naturally, a large number of predatory animals
like birds, spiders, anthocoridae, reduvidae, and
carabidae are recorded (Cock and Perera 1987 ).
A large number of parasitoids associated with
the BHC were recorded, and they caused the
suppression of the population. BHC-associat-
ed parasitoids include Braconidae, Eulopidae,
Chalisidae, Bethylidae, Ichneumonidae, Elasmi-
dae, Tachinidae, Phoridae, Stenomidae, and
Eupelmidae(Cock and Perera 1987 ). The classi-
cal biological control method was tested both in
India and Sri Lanka; however, it was not success-
ful in both countries (Table 5 ).Table 5 Summary of classical biological control of the BHC. (Source: Cock and Perera 1987 )
Parasitoid Release country Recommendation
Antrocehalus pandens Walker Sri Lanka No field recoveries, not suitable for field releases
Bessa remota Aldrich Sri Lanka, India No field recoveries, not suitable for field releases, fields
are unable to reach the larval galleries
Bracon brevicornis Wesmeal Sri Lanka, India Field recoveries occur, suitable for releases
Elamus nephantidis Rohwer Sri Lanka No field recoveries
Eriborus trocanteratus Morley India Recoveries occur after adding the parasitoid complex
Stomatomyia bessiana Baranoff India Colony did not persist
Tetrastichus Israeli Mani and Kurian Sri Lanka No recoveries
Trichogamma brasiliensis Ashmead Sri Lanka No recoveries
Trichogamma minutum Riley Sri Lanka, India Not recoveries