238 POTENTIAL BETWEEN BRAINSsimple rules, and although there is no centralized control structure dic-
tating how individual agents should behave... interactions between
such agents lead to t he emergence of ‘ intel ligent’ globa l be hav ior, unk now n
to the individual agents. Examples in natu ral systems of [swarm intelli-
gence] include ant colonies, bird fl ocking, animal herding, bacterial
growth, fi sh schooling and microbial intelligence.”
Th e absence of a centralized control structure does not mean that there
is no regulation at all. Local perturbations are perceived by individuals,
and they respond to them. But they do so in a way conditioned by the
responses of other individuals, which the fi rst individuals, in turn, also
perceive, and so on. So feedback and feedforward cycles of stimulus and
response are set up, and a harmonious pattern of intelligent be hav ior
somehow emerges.
One of the objectives of this book has been to explain how such emer-
gent patterns have been impor tant throughout the course of evolution.
How intelligence emerges among cooperating individuals is another turn
of the evolutionary spiral. Th e details have been revealed mostly in the
study of social insects, such as ants, termites, and bees. Although hugely
successful as life forms—in terms of biomass, they prob ably outweigh
all others on the planet— they live in challenging conditions. As Dun-
can Jackson and Francis Ratnieks point out about food supply alone, “So-
cial insect colonies live in a dynamic, competitive environment in which
food sources of variable quality are constantly changing in location.
Most ant species are dependent upon ephemeral food fi nds.”^2 Other daily
hazards include intrusions from predators and clumsy passersby, weather
fl uctuations, water incursions, and earth movements.
In responding to these conditions, remarkable degrees of cooperation
are exhibited. Th e building of intricate nests; defense against predators;
food foraging and transportation; route marking; laying, clustering, and
sorting of eggs; brood care; dealing with sudden obstacles; urgent nest
repairs and maintenance; and so on, are all tightly regulated. Th is is
achieved most conspicuously through development of individuals into
anatomically, physiologically, and behaviorally specialized roles. Repro-
duction (egg laying) is confi ned to a single queen. Defense is by soldiers
and other specialized individuals. Foraging and food collection is done
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