POTENTIAL BETWEEN BRAINS 245that are common across many diff er ent species of animals from ants to
chickens and fi sh and even some primates.”^9
In other words, individual variation and group variation are functions
of the dynamics of the system. Th is has implications for attempts to
delineate the origins of individual or group diff erences. Th e research eff ort,
Chase suggests, should be to concentrate on rules governing the dynamics
of interaction rather than to focus on individual- level explanations.
Even in fi sh, then, where the functions of social grouping are narrower
than in the social insects, much of the intelligent system of the individ-
ual is a refraction of the dynamics of the group. Th ere may be individual
“constitutional” variations, but almost all members will be good enough
for full group participation and its benefi ts.
BIRD FLOCKSMuch has been learned about the dynamics of collective intelligence from
bird fl ocks. Th e coherent fl ight of bird fl ocks is one of nature’s most im-
pressive aerial displays. Th ese are really spectacular, and video footage is
readily available in the social media (e.g., see www. youtube. com / watch? v
= 8vhE8ScWe7w). Th ey show rapid changes of speed and direction involv-
ing thousands of birds in a complex aerial choreography, all without a
conductor and without collisions.
Th e dominant function of fl ocking again seems to be predator avoid-
ance. During a predatory attack, waves of agitation are observed origi-
nating from the point of attack and propagating away from it. Th e wave
velocities are oft en faster than the velocity of the birds themselves and
are highly confusing to predators. Studies have shown that the higher
the velocity of those waves is, the lower the predator success will be.
As with studies of ant colonies and fi sh schools, attempts have been made
to explain the dynamics of bird fl ocks in terms of a few individual- based
rules. One popu lar theory has suggested that fl ock be hav ior is successful if
individual birds only interact with a few neighbors (the so- called infl uential
neighbors). As with fi sh schools, the interactions follow three simple rules:
get close to neighbors; align speed and direction; avoid collision. Any re-
sponse in one of the birds then quickly ripples through the fl ock.
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