Genes, Brains, and Human Potential The Science and Ideology of Intelligence

POTENTIAL BETWEEN BRAINS 247

only a small repertoire of be hav iors to the group, suffi cient for realizing

the narrower range of benefi ts. Th e group dynamics are consequently less

complex even than those of the ants. Nevertheless, to participate at all,

individuals must exceed a rather demanding threshold of cognitive abil-

ity. It seems likely that strong natu ral se lection would ensure that.

Th rough a combination of canalization and developmental plasticities,

the vast majority of individuals must be “good enough” to meet such

demands and ensure that coherence of social be hav ior among hundreds

or thousands of birds is maintained.

SOCIAL COGNITION

However, fl ocks are not the only kind of social life experienced by birds.
As with fi shes, many fl ocks are only temporary and many bird species
alternate between solitary and social lives (even if that consists only of
mating and rearing off spring).
A widely discussed hypothesis in recent years has been that an animal
interacting with others can create a cognitive model of another’s cogni-
tions and so be able to predict the behavioral intentions of others. Th is has
been called the “theory of mind” theory. It is controversial, because it
has been thought by many theorists to exist only in humans— indeed to
require the “advanced” brains of humans.
Th e suggestion, and evidence to support it in birds, comes from an
increasing number of studies. For example, Milind Watve showed how
bee- eaters (birds) would not return to their nests if they saw a potential
predator in the vicinity. Th ey would, however, be less cautious if the pred-
ator could not actually see the nest. In contrast, they were very cautious
if the predator had, in fact, already seen the nest before, even if it could
not see it at that moment. Watve and colleagues argue that to behave in
this way, the birds must have formed an impression of what the preda-
tor knows about the nest— that is, have some knowledge of the other’s
knowledge.^13
In another study, Nathan Emery and Nicola Clayton noticed that
jays that had buried food for later retrieval (as they habitually do) when
other jays were around tend to return later, alone, and hide the food in

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