POTENTIAL BETWEEN BRAINS 255
been modulation of emotional and motivational expression by cortical
centers.
An alternative suggestion is that the social lives of primates are not
nearly as complex as those of humans. Correspondingly, the cognitive de-
mands of the social lives of primates may be a little more complex than
the demands of life in general, but not greatly so.
A closer look at the culture of primates, for example, suggests that it
has little correspondence with that of humans. In the primate lit er a ture,
“culture” tends to be defi ned as merely the product of individual obser-
vational learning. For example, chimpanzees will start to use a stick to
dip for termites or monkeys might start to wash potatoes on the sea-
shore, aft er observing similar be hav iors in peers. Th e claim is made
that this amounts to cultural transmission of knowledge and cognitive
abilities across generations, similar to that in humans.
As should become clear in chapter 9, this is quite diff er ent from cul-
ture in humans, which is the product of intense social dynamics with
emergent properties. Th e study of primates is an intrinsically fascinating
and impor tant fi eld. But those who hope to fi nd in it a better understand-
ing of humans may be disappointed. Conspicuously, another sort of
social life is largely absent from primates: one that really is more demand-
ing cognitively. Th is is true cooperation— including cooperative hunting—
as described above.
ABOVE “MARKET COMPETITION”Indeed, complex cooperative activity, as in hunting, foraging, defense, and
so on, is rare in pre- human primates. Although living rich social lives in
other re spects, monkeys and apes rarely help group members other
than close family, and joint action and teaching are also rare. Th ere is
little evidence, even among chimpanzees, of agreement to share or of
reciprocation.
For example, chimpanzees do not take advantage of opportunities
to deliver food to other members of their group. In experiments reported
in 2013, Anke Bullinger and associates found that bonobos, chimps, and
marmosets all prefer to feed alone.^27 Obser vers have reported similarities
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