134 Epistemic Parentheticals
similar objections to the use of expect (s.v. expect , v., def. 5) as a synonym
for suppose “without any notion of ‘anticipating’ or ‘looking for’.” However,
citing Fowler concerning the naturalness and commonness of this usage, the
OED has abandoned its earlier view that this is a “misuse” (or vulgarity or
Americanism). Uses of these verbs parenthetically without reference to distinct
modes of knowing would thus suggest that it is not the evidential meaning but
the epistemic meaning of uncertainty that is central.
It should be noted that Present- day English has quite a large number of quo-
tative forms, which are more prototypically evidential than the fi rst- person
epistemic parentheticals, for example, I’m told , I’ve been told , I hear , I’ve read/
heard , I’ve heard tell , one hears , they tell me , they say , they allege , people say ,
it is said/ reported/ claimed/ rumored , as I’m told (see Quirk et al. 1985 : 1114;
Chafe 1986 : 268), as well as sensation markers such as I see/ hear/ feel , it looks/
sounds/ feels like (Chafe 1986 : 267).^8
5.2.4 Interpersonal Meaning
It is widely recognized that fi rst- person epistemic parentheticals are a feature
of oral discourse (Quirk et al. 1985 : 1113; Chafe 1986 : 266, 271; Thompson
and Mulac 1991 ; Thompson 2002 ), as is to be expected of forms functioning
as pragmatic markers, and that they are often stigmatized in writing (Östman
1982 : 171). Biber and Finegan ( 1989 : 103– 104) fi nd that verbal markers of evi-
dentiality (doubt and certainty) are frequent in two informal styles: face- to- face/
telephone conversations (a style which they term “interactional evidentiality”)
and personal letters (a style which they term “emphatic expression of affect”).
While the more specifi c adjectival marking of evidentiality (or “stance”) is
characteristic of planned, integrative, informational texts (i.e., generally writ-
ten texts), the more general verbal and adverbial marking of stance is found in
informal, involved, interactive texts (i.e., generally oral discourse) (117).
Biber and Finegan ( 1989 : 110, 117) suggest that certainty and doubt mark-
ers are used in oral discourse “for emphasis and to create a general sense of
involvement.” That is, they may not be used in the fi rst instance to express
uncertainty. Rather, their lack of emphasis on the exact presentation of infor-
mation seems to shift the focus to aspects of the situational context, namely,
to the relationship between speaker and hearer, and calls upon the hearer to fi ll
in the details, clarify the uncertainty, or make appropriate associations. This
function of involving the audience in the construction of the discourse serves
purposes of intimacy and is highly interpersonal.
In addition to serving as markers of orality and involvement, fi rst- person
epistemic parentheticals may also be used for purposes of politeness. Östman
8 On such forms in Middle English, see Brinton ( 1996 : 234– 235).