52
Old English Hwæt
2.3.2.2 Functions of Hwæt. Hwæt in Old English serves several of
the functions identifi ed for you know in Present- day English:
(a) calling the attention of the hearer to the following discourse;
(b) suggesting that the information to follow is common, shared, or
familiar; and
(c) bringing that information to consciousness, renewing interest in it, making
it salient or “newly relevant” (Schiffrin 1987 : 91), or focusing attention on
its importance to the following discourse.
Sometimes, the information following hwæt is indeed common or shared infor-
mation. It can be familiar – that is, old – information in a number of different
ways, as shown by the examples cited above:
(a) it may be part of the cultural tradition, whether oral or written, Germanic
or Christian (1, 2, 8);
(b) it may be part of the history of the society (7);
(c) it may be part of the immediate past of the individuals involved (4, 5);
(d) it may be given in the text (3); or
(e) it may be given in the context (6).
At other times, however, the information following hwæt is not old, but
rather new information presented as if it were old. For example, when Juliana
meets a devil and asks who sent him, he replies using hwæt:
(9) “ Hwæt , mec min fæder on þas fore to þe,/ hellwarena cyning, hider onsende ...”
(Jul 321– 22)
‘What, my father, the king of the hell- dwellers, sent me hither on this journey
to you ...’
Clearly, this is new information to Juliana, and the devil’s use of hwæt here is
insulting. As Crystal and Davy point out (1975: 94, 95), you know may “give
offense” when used in the sense ‘aren’t you aware?’ or ‘don’t you know?’ or
when used in irritation at the hearer’s slowness in understanding. Likewise,
in (4a), Beowulf’s use of hwæt impugns Unferth’s boasting speech, and in
(5a– b), hwæt introduces a verbal assault upon the addressee. In these cases, the
speaker assumes a superior position to the hearer.
More often, however, as Östman ( 1981 : 19) argues, the use of you know rep-
resents deference on the part of the speaker and a striving toward camaraderie.
You know can be understood as a marker of positive politeness directed toward
the hearer’s positive face, or as an expression of the desire that one wants be
agreeable to others (Brown and Levinson 1987[1978]: 67, 75, 77). That is,
by using a form such as you know , the speaker treats the hearer as a friend or
member of the in- group, considers the hearer important, and expresses his or
her liking for the hearer. Hwæt too seems to be a marker of positive politeness.