Part II: Species Accounts262
also used very often as intraspecific social behaviour, usually in
agonistic situations (Sowls 1997).Parasites and Diseases
Numerous parasites and diseases affect the collared peccary
throughout its distribution range. Sowls (1997) summarizes 19
species of acari (ticks, chiggers) that suck blood from the col-
lared peccary, with some of them even named after peccaries,
i.e. Amblyomma pecarium or Trombicula pecari. Three lice and
seven fleas were also reported as feeding on peccary blood (Sowls
1997). Nineteen endoparasites were found in collared peccary,
mostly nematodes (Sowls 1997). Collared peccaries have been
found to be susceptible and in some cases vectors of the follow-
ing diseases: hog cholera, vesicular exanthema of swine, vesic-
ular stomatitis, rinderpest, foot-and-mouth disease, rabies,
coccidiomycossis, cryptococcosis, pseudorabies, leptospiro-
sis, Venezuelan equine encephalitis, javelina encephalitis, and
brucellosis, and are apparently resistant to African swine fever
(Sowls 1997). Additionally, Brucella suis biovar 1 has been iso-
lated from collared and white-lipped peccaries in different Latin
American ecosystems (Chapter 35 in this volume). Equally,
antibodies against leptospirosis have been found repeatedly
in surveys among wild collared and white-lipped peccaries in
diverse locations such as Brazil (Nava & Cullen 2003; de Freitas
et al. 2010) or Bolivia (Karesh et al. 1998). Definitely, more infor-
mation is needed regarding diseases and parasites in wild popu-
lations of collared peccary and the possible transmission among
wild populations and domestic stock of pigs (Sus scrofa).Status in the Wild
The collared peccary is the most common of the three extant
peccary species and the one with the largest distribution
range. The collared peccary tolerates disturbed areas and can
survive under hunting pressure (Peres 1996; Weber 2000;
Peres & Palacios 2007; Reyna-Hurtado & Tanner 2007). It is
listed as Least Concern under the IUCN Red List (IUCN Red
List of Threatened Species. Version 2015-4. http://www.iucnredlist
.org. Downloaded 30 December 2015) and classified in CITES
Appendix II. It is the main species of a harvesting programme
that exports peccary skins from the Peruvian Amazon under
a certification programme that annually exports 50,000 skins
approximately (Fang et al. 2008).
However, its status requires monitoring, as the species may
be under several threats and pressures. The two major threats to
the survival of the collared peccary are over-hunting for their
meat and hides, and destruction of their natural habitats. These
factors have already resulted in the extensive fragmentation of
collared peccary populations and its extirpation over large parts
of its former range (Bodmer & Sowls 1993). For example, in the
areas where it was harvested under a certification programme
in Peru, historical record flooding from 2010 to 2015 produced
major declines on the species’ densities in vast areas within the
National Park Pacaya-Samiria (Bodmer et al. 2014; R. Bodmer,personal communication). In Calakmul Biosphere Reserve, the
collared peccary displays a resilient behaviour enduring hunt-
ing pressure and has similar relative abundance in communal
forest and in protected areas (Reyna-Hurtado & Tanner 2007).
However, recent evidence from the same sites indicates a dras-
tic reduction on the species’ abundance in areas of high hunt-
ing pressure (i.e. the index of relative abundance of a hunted
area is 3.7 photos/1000 camera-trap days in comparison to 27.5
photos/1000 camera-trap days in non-hunting areas; Briceño-
Mendes et al. 2016).
This recent evidence and the continuous increase in frag-
mentation and hunting pressure observed in all Neotropical
forests make it urgent to monitor populations of collared pec-
cary all over its range, especially in those areas where distinct
taxonomic units may exist. The collared peccary is a very impor-
tant species that ecologically plays critical roles as seed predator
and disperser (Beck 2005, 2006), ecosystem engineer, and soil
and pond modifier (Beck et al. 2010). The collared peccary is
also an important prey for large predators such as jaguar and
pumas and helps maintain local livelihoods throughout its geo-
graphical distribution. Efforts must be made to ensure that the
collared peccary is conserved in all areas of its original range
and to reduce threats such as forest fragmentation, hunting
pressure, introduced exotic species, and disease transmission.
By conserving the collared peccary we ensure that this species
will persist to fulfil its important ecological role and to amaze
future generations as an example of adaptation and endurance
in a wide range of habitats.Status in Captivity
The collared peccary is a common species in captive environ-
ments in all countries of its range and breeds so well in captive
environments that it has been proposed as a potential species to
be raised for consumption by rural people in several countries
(Sowls 1997), and is currently subjected to large-scale commer-
cial farming in north-eastern Brazil. There have been efforts to
reintroduce the species in areas where it has been eradicated
from captive-raised populations. For example, in Argentina,
a reintroduction programme (Figure 24.4; Ibera Program)
has been successful at releasing collared peccaries in the wild.
Without a doubt, the collared peccary represents a species with
high potential to be raised in captivity for either commercial or
conservation purposes.Acknowledgements
The authors acknowledge El Colegio de la Frontera Sur
(ECOSUR), El Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología de
Mexico (CONACYT), and WCS Brazil for financial support
and office time to write this chapter. Appreciations go to Mario
Melletti and Erik Meijaard for the invitation to write this chap-
ter. Our appreciation goes to our families for taking time away
to write this chapter..02612:46:11