Part II: Species Accounts270
Feeding Ecology
The majority of the white-lipped peccary’s diet consists of fruits
and seeds. In a review, Beck (2005) found that across the species’
geographical range it fed on over 144 plant species belonging
to 36 families. The taxonomic rank order of consumed fruits
and seeds of the five most important plant families consumed
were Arecaceae (24 per cent), Fabaceae (14 per cent), Moraceae
(10 per cent), Sapotaceae (8 per cent), and Chrysobalanaceae
(8 per cent). Interestingly, the palm family, Arecaceae, was
the most frequently utilized taxon. The main reason for this
might be that at the species level, palms have higher densities
than other trees and their highly nutritious fruits are available
year-round, including the dry season when other fruits are gen-
erally scarce (Gentry 1988; Kahn 1991; Peres 1994; Henderson
1995, 2002; Terborgh et al. 1996; Pitman et al. 2001; Beck 2006).
Despite that most palms have a hard-shelled endocarp that pro-
tects their seeds, peccaries coevolved a powerful mastication
apparatus, with interlocking canines, a thick enamel layer, and
strong mastication muscles to generate a bite force of over 300 kg
(Herring 1972; Kiltie 1981b, 1981c, 1982), enabling them to prey
upon most seeds (Beck 2006). Overall, white-lipped peccary is
able to break the seeds of over 97 species from 124 plant species
consumed.
However, the white-lipped peccary can also function as
a critical seed disperser via ingestions and defecation (endo-
zoochory), especially for small or well-protected seeds such as
Brosimun spp., Dipteryx spp., or Ficus spp. (Beck 2005, 2006).
Other less well-known forms of seed dispersal include expecto-
ration and epizoochory (Beck 2005). In the first case, peccaries
consume the fruit pulp but spit out the large or very hard seed
which may later germinate (i.e. Mautitia flexuosa or Attalea
spp.). Epizoochory occurs when seeds attach themselves via
sticky saps or hooks to the fur of peccaries (i.e. Pharus vires-
cens), and thus can be carried for long distances before falling off
(Izawa & Kobayashi 1997).
Besides fruits and seeds, the white-lipped peccary consumes
a wide range of other resources, including leaves, tubers, roots,
rhizomes, terrestrial invertebrates, turtle and bird eggs, frogs,
fishes, snakes, and small mammals (citation in Beck 2005).
Analyses of stomach contents and faeces of peccaries indicated
that fruits and seeds were the primary food resources, followed
by leaves and roots. Therefore, several authors consider pecca-
ries to be primarily frugivores (Kiltie 1981; Bodmer 1989, 1991a,
1991b; Altrichter et al. 2000, 2001b; Keuroghlian & Eaton 2008a).
These myriad and unique peccary–plant interactions have
critical ecological implications because they influence seed sur-
vival, predation, and dispersal, germination rates, species com-
position, diversity of recruiting plants, and the resulting canopy
tree community (Beck 2005, 2006, 2007; Beck et al. 2013). Thus,
in forests where white-lipped peccary and other megafauna
occur in lower densities or are extinct because of over-hunting
(‘empty forest’) or habitat loss, the lack of these mammal–plant
interactions can lead to dramatic changes in plant species com-
position and diversity, and unleash trophic cascading effects that
not only affect plants but many animal species as well (Terborgh
et al. 2008; Beck et al. 2013; Dirzo et al. 2014; Ripple et al. 2014;
Galetti et al. 2015b).Reproduction and Growth
Anecdotal observations (Sowls 1984) and research in the
Peruvian Amazon (Gottdenker & Bodmer 1998; Mayor et al.
2010) indicate that the white-lipped peccary breeds through-
out the year. Gottdenker and Bodmer (1998) suggest that this
breeding pattern may be an outcome from the relatively con-
stant rainfall and the resulting food availability year-round.
However, it seems that there is variation in breeding seasonal-
ity. In the rainforest of Costa Rica, the species showed a distinct
reproductive seasonality, with one mating peak in February and
another in July (Altrichter et al. 2001a). The greatest number of
newborns and the peak in nursing activity were observed during
July and August, when fruit availability was high (Altrichter et al.
2001a). In Mexico, the species has breeding seasons in April and
November. Roots (1966) in Texas reported that captive white-
lipped peccary usually give birth during the rainy season.
The gestation period for the white-lipped peccary is about
180 days and the average number of offspring found from
pregnant hunted animals in the Amazon ranged from 1.6 to
1.7 young (Gottdenker & Bodmer 1998; Mayor et al. 2010). In
the Amazon the parturition was 0.89/year (Mayor et al. 2009).
The young nurse for about six months and sexual maturity is
reached between one and two years of age (Schmidt 1990; March
1993). Using paternity and maternity tests, Dalila et al. (2013)
indicated that both males and females have offspring with more
than one partner, showing a promiscuous genetic mating sys-
tem, as also observed for the collared peccary (Pecari tajacu;
Cooper et al. 2011). A 1:1 foetal sex ratio was documented from
pregnant individuals that were hunted in the Peruvian Amazon
(Gottdenker & Bodmer 1998; Mayor et al. 2009). However, esti-
mates based on data collected from free-ranging individuals
consistently showed female-biased sex ratios (Table 25.2).Behaviour
The white-lipped peccary displays a variety of behavioural
activities including foraging, ingestion, travelling, resting,
wallowing, conspecific interactions, and swimming (Mayer &
Wetzel 1987; Sowls 1997; Altrichter et al. 2002; Beck et al. 2010).Table 25.2 Sex ratios of wild white-lipped peccary in various locations
across its distributionSex ratio F:M Location and country Source
1.58 Lago Caiman, Noel Kempff
National Park, BoliviaPainter 19981.56 Parque das Emas, Goias, Brazil Jacamo 2004
1.8 Maraca Island, Brazil Fragoso 1984
1.4 to 1.8 depending
on method usedCorcovado National Park,
Costa RicaAltrichter
et al. 2001a
1.36 Fazenda Rio Negro,
Pantanal, BrazilBiondo et al.
2011
1.88 Fazenda Campo Lourdes
and Fazenda Santa Emilia,
Pantanal, BrazilKeuroghlian,
unpublished
data
1.5 Waimiri-Atroari, Central
Amazon, BrazilMazurek 1997.02712:46:17