The New Neotropical Companion

1,000 kg (2,200 lb) of edible nutritious seeds. The

Breadnut Tree is tolerant of many soil types and grows

rapidly, an ideal tree for cultivation. Its fruits and seeds

would have been sources of nutrition for humans and

domestic animals, its leaves used for animal forage,

and its wood used for construction. The unique

abundance of ramon throughout areas formerly

densely populated by Mayan citizenry is likely due to

Mayan silviculture. Maya apparently preserved ramon

seeds in underground chambers called chultunob

(singular, chultun). Breadnuts probably served as a

“famine food,” to be used when times were difficult.

Hunting and Gathering in Tropical

Forests

For the vast majority of their history, humans survived

by selective use of plants, as well as by hunting and

scavenging various animals. Hunter- gatherer groups

have very low population densities, often less than one

person per square mile (2.6 km^2 ), and thus do little in

the way of manipulating or altering the ecosystem. The

impact of hunter- gatherers is normally low but not

negligible. Hunter- gatherer tribes still exist in some

relatively remote parts of Amazonia today but are

rarely if ever encountered by ecotourists. In most areas

traditional hunter- gatherer groups have increasingly

had interaction with elements of modernity.

Hunter- gatherer groups are commonly egalitarian,

sharing food and other resources within the tribe.

Egalitarianism is a pragmatic social order in a society in

which individual hunters experience variable biomass

yields from one day to another. Should a hunter fail on

any given day, he nonetheless eats. Should he succeed,

he shares.

Hunter- gatherers are typically nomadic, moving their

settlements after having depleted essential resources,

which could range from particular animal species to

certain plant species. Because they are nomadic, there

is normally wide birth spacing in hunter- gatherer

groups, keeping populations low.

The diets of hunter- gather peoples are heavily

dependent on animal food, which usually makes up

between 45 and 65% of the total daily energy intake.

Protein makes up 19– 35% of the daily energy intake. In

this regard, hunter- gatherer societies take in considerably

less carbohydrate in relation to protein than non- hunter-

gatherer groups that rely more on agriculture.

In ecological terms, humans in hunter- gatherer

societies harvest few calories relative to what is present

in the ecosystem as a whole. Most of the plants and

animals in the forest are not used. For this reason,

hunter- gatherer groups require large areas.

Because hunter- gatherer groups remain small,

inbreeding is a potential genetic problem. Human

behaviors such as incest and tribal raids that procure

females, who are then brought into the raiding group

as wives, are sociological adaptations to this reality.

So is tribal warfare among neighboring groups. Since

settlements are not permanent, and because resources

are ultimately limited, periodic warfare among hunter-

gatherer groups is commonplace.

Because of the variety of hunter- gatherer tribes

throughout the Neotropics, as well as differences in

habitat from one region to another, cultures vary. It is

not possible to describe one tribal culture as typifying

all. But all traditional Neotropical hunter- gatherers are

relatively nomadic, living in a small temporary village

or encampment for some time and eventually moving

on when they have exhausted the game or essential

plants from a given locality. Hunting is accomplished

by careful, quiet stalking, using a blowgun, bow and

arrow, or spear to bring down essential protein: large

birds, monkeys, sloths, agoutis, pacas, tapirs, and other

animals. Often, but not always, arrows or darts are

tipped with poison. Protein is also supplied by certain

arthropods, especially large grubs, and, among tribes

living along rivers, by fish (sometimes captured using

poison), turtles, capybara, and crocodilians.

Plate 17- 3. Tikal, in eastern Guatemala, dates to the Classic

Period of Mayan civilization, during which much of the

surrounding forest was cleared for intensive agriculture.

The archaic temples look nothing like they did when the

civilization flourished, but they nonetheless are invaluable

artifacts. Photo by John Kricher.

chapter 17 human ecology in the tropics 367