76 / Chapter 3
is out of my range. This was the largest spill in U.S. history.^44 The
exact reasons for the grounding remain unclear. The tanker had
encountered icebergs in the shipping lanes and Captain Joe Hazel-
wood had ordered the helmsman, Harry Claar, to take the vessel out
of the shipping lanes until it was clear of the ice. Claar turned the
helm over to Robert Kagan and left the third mate, Gregory Cous-
ins, in charge of the wheelhouse. Cousins and Kagan did not make
the turn back into the shipping lanes and instead ran aground on
Bligh Reef. Investigations by the National Transportation Safety
Board determined fi ve probable causes, including improper maneu-
vering by the third mate because of fatigue, possibly combined with
alcohol impairment, and failure by the Coast Guard to provide an
effective traffi c system.^45 The captain was charged with operating
a vessel while under the infl uence of alcohol, but an Alaska jury
found him not guilty.
A series of delays slowed the cleanup after the Exxon Valdez
spill. Mechanical skimmers were not immediately available. During
the fi rst application of dispersants, the water was too calm to mix
the chemical with the oil, a requirement for effective use. Although
a trial burn in an isolated area proved successful, a storm on the
third day made additional burning and thus all efforts to contain
the oil at sea impossible. Consequently, cleanup efforts shifted from
the water to the shoreline.
As the oil dissolved and spread underwater, it killed millions
of fi sh, including pink salmon and Pacifi c herring, as well as the
countless creatures in the supporting food chain and the coastal
ecology. The area had two orca pods, one of which lost half of its
members and the other a third. No new calves were born for at least
four years after the spill. The spill was particularly devastating to
birds. Prince William Sound is known for its “rich and diverse”
marine bird populations. Its bays and inland seas include habitat
ranging from rugged islands to rocky outcrops, from coastal forests
to sandy shoreline. Two hundred species of birds use the sound at
various times during the year. Estimates suggest the spill killed at
least a quarter of a million birds. The oil, however, was not the only
culprit; the detergents, dispersants, and high-pressure hot water