116 5: Th eories of Public Management
Robert D. Behn (1991) describes leadership as the key to improved perfor-
mance in the Massachusetts Welfare, Training, and Employment Program. Th e
quality of education in elementary schools can be found in leadership (Meier,
Wrinkle, and Polinard 1999). What determines the quality of a prison? Leadership
(DiIulio 1987). In the Terry L. Cooper and N. Dale Wright (1992) collection, the
legendary role of Robert Moses and Austin Tobin in the development of the New
York Port Authority is explored. Th e collection also contains impressive studies
of William Ruckelshous (Dobel); Elmer Staats (Frederickson); C. Everett Koop
(Bowman); Elsa Porter (Radin); Marie Ragghiaonti (Hejka-Ekins); Beverly Myers
(Stivers); George Marshall and J. Edgar Hoover (Hart and Hart); and George P.
Hartzog (Sherwood). Even Daryl Gates, the sheriff of Los Angeles County before
the Rodney King incident in 1996, is presented as a leader (Moore 1995).
While this is an impressive laundry list of eff ective leadership, it does not
provide any sense of a coherent framework for understanding how leadership
is carried out. A useful overview of the lessons of leadership theory is found in
Montgomery Van Wart’s review of the fi ve most-recognized theories of leader-
ship (2013). He identifi es and discusses the following: classical management and
role theory; transactional leadership; transformational leadership; horizontal or
collaborative leadership; and ethical leadership. Van Wart shows that each ap-
proach to understanding leadership provides diff erent lessons for public manag-
ers, as summarized here. As each is described, the links to management theory,
and group, role, and communication theories will become apparent.
With classical management theory, leaders must assign and coordinate work,
secure the necessary resources and information for the organization, commu-
nicate goals, align incentives for workers with those goals, and then be held ac-
countable for the results. Much of this classical theory of leadership can be found
in McGregor’s theory of management. While perhaps seen as theoretically dated,
the tenants of classical management theory hang on in many practical forms: per-
formance evaluations by managers, raises in salary, awards for milestones and
achievement, and opportunities for professional development.
Transactional leadership examines the interactions between leaders and fol-
lowers. Th e key to this approach is to understand and facilitate what motivates
followers. Followers need direction, training, and encouragement. Th e transac-
tional approach acknowledges that each follower may be diff erent in needs and
source of motivation, which creates a challenge for the leader. When the leader is
not able to have positive interactions, mistrust and low morale will likely result.
Transformational leadership theory examines organizational change. Leaders
who are able to change structure, procedure, or culture have four characteris-
tics (Javidian and Waldman 2003): energy and determination; vision; ability to
deal with challenges while encouraging workers; and appropriate tolerance for
risk-taking. Transformational leadership is particularly important because it is
not suffi cient to merely get things done now. Leaders must ensure their organiza-
tions are ready for what is next, and to change them if needed.