Contents xix
- 13 Blood, Heart, and Circulation Brief Contents
- Pressure 14 Cardiac Output, Blood Flow, and Blood
- 15 The Immune System
- 16 Respiratory Physiology
- 17 Physiology of the Kidneys
- 18 The Digestive System
- 19 Regulation of Metabolism
- 20 Reproduction
- Answers to Objective Questions A- Appendix
- Glossary G-
- Credits C-
- Index I-
- 1 The Study of Body Function
- 2 Chemical Composition of the Body
- 3 Cell Structure and Genetic Control
- 4 Enzymes and Energy
- 5 Cell Respiration and Metabolism
- Extracellular Environment 6 Interactions Between Cells and the
- 7 The Nervous System
- 8 The Central Nervous System
- 9 The Autonomic Nervous System
- 10 Sensory Physiology
- 11 Endocrine Glands
- 12 Muscle
- CHAPTER Preface v
- The Study of Body Function
- 1.1 Introduction to Physiology
- Scientific Method
- 1.2 Homeostasis and Feedback Control
- History of Physiology
- Negative Feedback Loops
- Positive Feedback
- Neural and Endocrine Regulation
- Feedback Control of Hormone Secretion
- 1.3 The Primary Tissues
- Muscle Tissue
- Nervous Tissue
- Epithelial Tissue
- Connective Tissue
- 1.4 Organs and Systems
- An Example of an Organ: The Skin
- Systems
- Body-Fluid Compartments
- Summary
- Review Activities
- CHAPTER
- Chemical Composition of the Body
- 2.1 Atoms, Ions, and Chemical Bonds
- Atoms
- Compounds Chemical Bonds, Molecules, and Ionic
- Acids, Bases, and the pH Scale
- Organic Molecules
- 2.2 Carbohydrates and Lipids
- Carbohydrates
- Lipids
- 2.3 Proteins
- Structure of Proteins
- Functions of Proteins
- 2.4 Nucleic Acids
- Deoxyribonucleic Acid
- Ribonucleic Acid
- Summary
- Review Activities
- CHAPTER
- Cell Structure and Genetic Control
- Structures 3.1 Plasma Membrane and Associated
- Structure of the Plasma Membrane
- Phagocytosis
- Endocytosis
- Exocytosis
- Cilia and Flagella
- Microvilli
- 3.2 Cytoplasm and Its Organelles
- Cytoplasm and Cytoskeleton
- Lysosomes
- Peroxisomes
- Mitochondria
- Ribosomes
- Endoplasmic Reticulum
- Golgi Complex
- 3.3 Cell Nucleus and Gene Expression
- Genome and Proteome
- Chromatin
- RNA Synthesis
- RNA Interference
- 3.4 Protein Synthesis and Secretion
- Transfer RNA
- Formation of a Polypeptide
- and Golgi Complex Functions of the Endoplasmic Reticulum
- Protein Degradation
- 3.5 DNA Synthesis and Cell Division
- DNA Replication
- 5.4 Metabolism of Lipids and Proteins xvi Contents
- Lipid Metabolism
- Amino Acid Metabolism
- Uses of Different Energy Sources
- Interactions
- Summary
- Review Activities
- CHAPTER
- Extracellular Environment Interactions Between Cells and the
- 6.1 Extracellular Environment
- Body Fluids
- Extracellular Matrix
- Membrane Categories of Transport Across the Plasma
- 6.2 Diffusion and Osmosis
- Diffusion Through the Plasma Membrane
- Rate of Diffusion
- Osmosis
- Regulation of Blood Osmolality
- 6.3 Carrier-Mediated Transport
- Facilitated Diffusion
- Active Transport
- Bulk Transport
- 6.4 The Membrane Potential
- Equilibrium Potentials
- Resting Membrane Potential
- 6.5 Cell Signaling
- Second Messengers
- G-Proteins
- Interactions
- Summary
- Review Activities
- CHAPTER
- The Nervous System
- 7.1 Neurons and Supporting Cells
- Neurons
- Classification of Neurons and Nerves
- Neuroglial Cells
- Neurilemma and Myelin Sheath
- Functions of Astrocytes
- 2.4 Nucleic Acids
- The Cell Cycle
- Mitosis
- Meiosis
- Epigenetic Inheritance
- Interactions
- Summary
- Review Activities
- CHAPTER
- Enzymes and Energy
- 4.1 Enzymes as Catalysts
- Mechanism of Enzyme Action
- Naming of Enzymes
- 4.2 Control of Enzyme Activity
- Effects of Temperature and pH
- Cofactors and Coenzymes
- Enzyme Activation
- Reactions Substrate Concentration and Reversible
- Metabolic Pathways
- 4.3 Bioenergetics
- Endergonic and Exergonic Reactions
- Coupled Reactions: ATP
- Coupled Reactions: Oxidation-Reduction
- Summary
- Review Activities
- CHAPTER
- Cell Respiration and Metabolism
- 5.1 Glycolysis and the Lactic Acid Pathway
- Glycolysis
- Lactic Acid Pathway
- 5.2 Aerobic Respiration
- Citric Acid Cycle
- Phosphorylation Electron Transport and Oxidative
- Production Coupling of Electron Transport to ATP
- ATP Balance Sheet
- and Glycogen 5.3 Interconversion of Glucose, Lactic Acid,
- Glycogenesis and Glycogenolysis
- Cori Cycle
- Hindbrain Contents xvii
- Arousal Reticular Activating System in Sleep and
- 8.5 Spinal Cord Tracts
- Ascending Tracts
- Descending Tracts
- 8.6 Cranial and Spinal Nerves
- Cranial Nerves
- Spinal Nerves
- Summary
- Review Activities
- CHAPTER
- The Autonomic Nervous System
- Effectors 9.1 Neural Control of Involuntary
- Autonomic Neurons
- Visceral Effector Organs
- System 9.2 Divisions of the Autonomic Nervous
- Sympathetic Division
- Parasympathetic Division
- System 9.3 Functions of the Autonomic Nervous
- Transmission Adrenergic and Cholinergic Synaptic
- Responses to Adrenergic Stimulation
- Responses to Cholinergic Stimulation
- Other Autonomic Neurotransmitters
- Organs with Dual Innervation
- Organs Without Dual Innervation
- by Higher Brain Centers Control of the Autonomic Nervous System
- Interactions
- Summary
- Review Activities
- CHAPTER
- Sensory Physiology
- 10.1 Characteristics of Sensory Receptors
- Categories of Sensory Receptors
- Law of Specific Nerve Energies
- Generator (Receptor) Potential
- 7.2 Electrical Activity in Axons
- Ion Gating in Axons
- Action Potentials
- Conduction of Nerve Impulses
- 7.3 The Synapse
- Electrical Synapses: Gap Junctions
- Chemical Synapses
- 7.4 Acetylcholine as a Neurotransmitter
- Chemically Regulated Channels
- Acetylcholinesterase (AChE)
- Acetylcholine in the PNS
- Acetylcholine in the CNS
- 7.5 Monoamines as Neurotransmitters
- Serotonin as a Neurotransmitter
- Dopamine as a Neurotransmitter
- Norepinephrine as a Neurotransmitter
- 7.6 Other Neurotransmitters
- Amino Acids as Neurotransmitters
- Polypeptides as Neurotransmitters
- Endocannabinoids as Neurotransmitters
- Gases as Neurotransmitters
- ATP and Adenosine as Neurotransmitters
- 7.7 Synaptic Integration
- Synaptic Plasticity
- Synaptic Inhibition
- Summary
- Review Activities
- CHAPTER
- The Central Nervous System
- 8.1 Structural Organization of the Brain
- 8.2 Cerebrum
- Cerebral Cortex
- Basal Nuclei
- Cerebral Lateralization
- Language
- Limbic System and Emotion
- Memory
- Emotion and Memory
- 8.3 Diencephalon
- Thalamus and Epithalamus
- Hypothalamus and Pituitary Gland
- 8.4 Midbrain and Hindbrain
- Midbrain
- Response Effects of Hormone Concentrations on Tissue
- 11.2 Mechanisms of Hormone Action
- Proteins Hormones That Bind to Nuclear Receptor
- Hormones That Use Second Messengers
- 11.3 Pituitary Gland
- Pituitary Hormones
- Pituitary Hypothalamic Control of the Posterior
- Pituitary Hypothalamic Control of the Anterior
- Feedback Control of the Anterior Pituitary
- Higher Brain Function and Pituitary Secretion
- 11.4 Adrenal Glands
- Functions of the Adrenal Cortex
- Functions of the Adrenal Medulla
- Stress and the Adrenal Gland
- 11.5 Thyroid and Parathyroid Glands
- Production and Action of Thyroid Hormones
- Parathyroid Glands
- 11.6 Pancreas and Other Endocrine Glands
- Pancreatic Islets (Islets of Langerhans)
- Pineal Gland
- Gastrointestinal Tract
- Gonads and Placenta
- 11.7 Paracrine and Autocrine Regulation
- Regulation Examples of Paracrine and Autocrine
- Prostaglandins
- Interactions
- Summary
- Review Activities
- CHAPTER
- Muscle
- 12.1 Skeletal Muscles
- Structure of Skeletal Muscles
- Motor End Plates and Motor Units
- 12.2 Mechanisms of Contraction
- Sliding Filament Theory of Contraction
- Regulation of Contraction
- 12.3 Contractions of Skeletal Muscles
- Twitch, Summation, and Tetanus
- Midbrain
- 10.2 Cutaneous Sensations
- Sensations Neural Pathways for Somatesthetic
- Receptive Fields and Sensory Acuity
- Lateral Inhibition
- 10.3 Taste and Smell
- Taste
- Smell
- 10.4 Vestibular Apparatus and Equilibrium
- Apparatus Sensory Hair Cells of the Vestibular
- Utricle and Saccule
- Semicircular Canals
- 10.5 The Ears and Hearing
- Outer Ear
- Middle Ear
- Cochlea
- Spiral Organ (Organ of Corti)
- 10.6 The Eyes and Vision
- Refraction
- Accommodation
- Visual Acuity
- 10.7 Retina
- Effect of Light on the Rods
- Electrical Activity of Retinal Cells
- Cones and Color Vision
- Visual Acuity and Sensitivity
- Neural Pathways from the Retina
- 10.8 Neural Processing of Visual Information
- Ganglion Cell Receptive Fields
- Lateral Geniculate Nuclei
- Cerebral Cortex
- Interactions
- Summary
- Review Activities
- CHAPTER
- Endocrine Glands
- 11.1 Endocrine Glands and Hormones
- Chemical Classification of Hormones
- Prohormones and Prehormones
- Regulation Common Aspects of Neural and Endocrine
- Hormone Interactions
- Electrocardiogram 13.5 Electrical Activity of the Heart and the
- Electrical Activity of the Heart
- The Electrocardiogram
- 13.6 Blood Vessels
- Arteries
- Capillaries
- Veins
- Arrhythmias 13.7 Atherosclerosis and Cardiac
- Atherosclerosis
- Electrocardiograph Arrhythmias Detected by the
- 13.8 Lymphatic System
- Summary
- Review Activities
- CHAPTER
- and Blood Pressure Cardiac Output, Blood Flow,
- 14.1 Cardiac Output
- Regulation of Cardiac Rate
- Regulation of Stroke Volume
- Venous Return
- 14.2 Blood Volume
- Tissues Exchange of Fluid Between Capillaries and
- Kidneys Regulation of Blood Volume by the
- Flow 14.3 Vascular Resistance to Blood
- Physical Laws Describing Blood Flow
- Extrinsic Regulation of Blood Flow
- Paracrine Regulation of Blood Flow
- Intrinsic Regulation of Blood Flow
- Muscles 14.4 Blood Flow to the Heart and Skeletal
- Aerobic Requirements of the Heart
- Regulation of Coronary Blood Flow
- Muscles Regulation of Blood Flow Through Skeletal
- Circulatory Changes During Exercise
- 14.5 Blood Flow to the Brain and Skin
- Cerebral Circulation
- Cutaneous Blood Flow
- Types of Muscle Contractions
- Series-Elastic Component
- Length-Tension Relationship
- Muscles 12.4 Energy Requirements of Skeletal
- Metabolism of Skeletal Muscles
- Slow- and Fast-Twitch Fibers
- Muscle Fatigue
- Adaptations of Muscles to Exercise Training
- Muscle Damage and Repair
- 12.5 Neural Control of Skeletal Muscles
- Muscle Spindle Apparatus
- Alpha and Gamma Motoneurons
- Motoneurons Coactivation of Alpha and Gamma
- Skeletal Muscle Reflexes
- Muscles Upper Motor Neuron Control of Skeletal
- 12.6 Cardiac and Smooth Muscles
- Cardiac Muscle
- Smooth Muscle
- Interactions
- Summary
- Review Activities
- CHAPTER
- Blood, Heart, and Circulation
- Circulatory System 13.1 Functions and Components of the
- Functions of the Circulatory System
- Major Components of the Circulatory System
- 13.2 Composition of the Blood
- Plasma
- The Formed Elements of Blood
- Hematopoiesis
- Red Blood Cell Antigens and Blood Typing
- Blood Clotting
- Dissolution of Clots
- 13.3 Structure of the Heart
- Pulmonary and Systemic Circulations
- Atrioventricular and Semilunar Valves
- Heart Sounds
- 13.4 Cardiac Cycle
- Pressure Changes During the Cardiac Cycle