1989; Cornell and Gelles, 1982; Straus, Gelles, and Steinmetz,
1980). Rates of child-to-parent violence decrease as the child
ages; it is more often younger children who hit their parents.
Injuries to parents are rare, but they do happen. If the parent
reacts to a child’s violence with violence, the child has learned
a lesson that could last a lifetime.
The rates of parental violence against children are sig-
nificantly more serious. In recent years, American society has
also been vitally concerned about the problem of child abuse
(violence against children) and child sexual abuse (the sex-
ual exploitation of children). The Keeping Children and Fam-
ilies Safe Act of 2003 defines child abuse and neglect as, at
minimum: (1) Any recent act or failure to act on the part of
a parent or caretaker which results in death, serious physi-
cal or emotional harm, sexual abuse or exploitation; or (2)
an act or failure to act which presents an imminent risk of
serious harm. This definition of child abuse and neglect refers
specifically to parents and other caregivers. A “child” under
this definition generally means a person who is under the age
of 18 or who is not an emancipated minor.
According to the Department of Health and Human Ser-
vices, rates of victimization and the number of victims have
been decreasing in the first decade of the twenty-first century.
An estimated 872,000 children were determined to be victims
of child abuse or neglect for 2004 (the last year for which there
are data). More than 60 percent of child victims were neglected by their parents or other
caregivers. About 18 percent were physically abused, 10 percent were sexually abused,
and 7 percent were emotionally maltreated. (A child could be a victim of more than one
type of maltreatment.) The United States has rates that are significantly higher than rates
in other English-speaking countries such as Australia, Canada, and Great Britain, partly,
but not entirely, due to the higher rates of child poverty in the United States (poverty is
a significant risk factor).
Rates of child abuse and child sexual abuse vary significantly by class but less by
race or ethnicity. According to some research (Daly and Wilson, 1981), living with a
stepparent significantly increases the risk of both abuse and sexual abuse. Yet other
research, using the conflict tactics scale, found little difference—in generally very high
rates overall. In one study, 63 percent of children who lived with both genetic par-
ents and 47 percent of those who lived with a stepparent and 60 percent of those who
lived with a foster parent were subject to violence, and about 10 percent were sub-
jected to severe violence in all three categories (Gelles and Harrop, 1991).
Globally, the problem of child abuse and neglect is equally serious—and includes
forms of abuse that are not found in the economic north. In 2006, the United Nations
commissioned the first global investigation into child abuse. They found that between
80 and 98 percent of children suffer physical punishment in their homes, with a third
or more experiencing severe physical punishment resulting from the use of implements.
Despite these global differences, it is equally true that Americans are far more accept-
ing of violence against children than they may realize. Over half of all American parents
(55 percent) believe that corporal punishment, including spanking, is acceptable; and
one-third of parents have used corporal punishment against their adolescents (Straus,
2005). These numbers are significantly less than the 94 percent who supported the use
of corporal punishment in 1968 and the two-thirds who used it with adolescents in 1975
(Straus, 2005). But it is still the case that nearly all parents—94 percent—used corporal
punishment with toddlers, and they did so, on average, three times a week.412 CHAPTER 12THE FAMILY35%
had been hit
or attacked
by a sibling.A STUDY OF 2,030
CHILDREN FOUND:13%
were injured.6%
were attacked
with a weapon.40%
were attacked
repeatedly.OF THOSE ATTACKED:FIGURE 12.7Leave Your Brother Alone!
Sibling ViolenceSource:From “Beyond Rivalry, a Hidden World of Sibling Violence” by
Katy Butler, The New York Times, February 28, 2006. Reprinted with
permission.