Earth at the same time. The vast majority of scientists believe that scientific cre-
ationism is not a valid theory because it comes to the conclusion first and then
tries to find data that fit. Should creationism be taught alongside evolution in pub-
lic schools?2.School prayer.Many public schools begin the day with a prayer. However, some
religions do not include prayers, and some people are not religious. Political
debates ask if everyone should be required to pray or if this infringes on the sep-
aration of church and state.3.Embryonic stem cell research.Scientists have begun to use embryonic stem cells—
those that can develop into virtually any kind of cell in the human body—to
develop new treatments for some of our most deadly diseases. Some religions
teach that stem cells are the domain of the sacred, the origin of human life, and
should therefore not be developed in laboratories for experiments.Science as an Institution
While we usually think of religious teachings as eternal, timeless truths, at least to
the believer, we think of science as a gradual, progressive accumulation of informa-
tion. We think that scientists all follow the same rigorous scientific method and per-
form their research objectively, without worrying about any political or moral
implications. We think that scientific breakthroughs are the result of individual genius,
a greater-than-the rest scientist who applies existing research and generates a revolu-
tionary application or theoretical revelation.
Sociologists, however, see science quite differently. Sociologists see communities
of scientists working within a particular field, accumulating tidbits of knowledge
within a specific theoretical framework, and often censuring those who discover dif-
ferent results. Scientists create rules that govern who gets to do research and who does
not. Scientific breakthroughs are the result of the collapse of the old framework under
the accumulated weight of new evidence, and the old guard releases its control over
the field.
Sociologists observe the interactions among scientists, ranging from the way they
interact within a scientific laboratory to the ways they form and sustain scientific com-
munities, groups of scientists working on similar or related problems in a number of
different settings. Other sociologists take a more institutional approach, focusing on
the role of the scientist and scientific institutions within a society.Types of Science
Just as there are many different religions, there are many different types of science in
the world. Scientists usually practice only one and know little about the others:1.Biological sciences study living organisms, including microorganisms (microbi-
ology), animals (zoology), plants (botany), physiology, and biochemistry. Medi-
cine and agriculture are applied branches of biological science.2.The physical sciences study nonliving processes, including the basic physical laws
of existence (physics), organic and inorganic matter (chemistry), Earth sciences
(geology, meteorology, and oceanography), and the stars and planets (astronomy).
The various types of engineering are applied branches of physical science.510 CHAPTER 15RELIGION AND SCIENCE