122 ● Anita Gibbs
Problems. In their text, some social problems are labeled as wicked problems,
with the term “wicked” used to convey their complexity and pervasiveness, as
well as their negative and damaging impact on large numbers of people (Perri
6 1997; Rittel and Webber 1973; Shannon and Young 2004). In order to
seriously address wicked problems, intervention must follow on from expla-
nation, not necessarily in a linear fashion, but in a way that acknowledges the
necessity of understanding the full extent of the problem before acting and of
approaching the problem as complex and chaotic.
Social ProblemsSocial problems—whether poverty, crime, exclusion, discrimination, or
disability—are by their very nature major problems, impacting societies at
global, national, and local levels. They impact diverse groups in society in
multifaceted ways. It is therefore imperative that social problems receive expla-
nations and responses at multiple levels, and it is imperative that interventions
are also carried out at multiple levels.
An individualistic viewing of social problems might suggest that these are
primarily personal problems, affecting many individuals, and that their
multiplicity is what creates major issues in society, costing societies billions of
dollars. From this perspective, social problems occur after the failure of attempts
by individuals to access support from immediate family and networks, as well
as from the individuals’ immediate social environments (Smale, Tuson, and Sta-
tham 2000). Yet personal problems that affect significant numbers of people
have profound political, financial, cultural, economic, and relational impacts,
far beyond the individual or family impact. Alternatively, a social problem
might be viewed as a problem created by governments, because governments
fail to provide for the basic needs of their citizens or because governments
allow social problems to exist as a means of exercising social control over those
who are vulnerable, sick, and excluded. A related view is that there are multiple
stakeholders, which may or may not include governments—whether policy
makers, statutory agencies, corporate enterprises, or other institutions—that
have the power to create or ignore social problems.
Social problems are not fixed or static, although they persist over time
(Epstein 1980). Social problems can be viewed as societal issues emerging
from a range of societal contexts and requiring collective responses (Nissen
2014). A broad understanding of social problems is required to take account
of the complexity and chaos of the contexts in which problems emerge.
Another way of viewing social problems is that they are created by social
and political momentum, particularly through attention in the mass media
(Payne 2014). In these circumstances, social problems are viewed not as