Analyzing and Solving Social Problems ● 129dominant worldviews that have marginalized indigenous and other minority
groups, as well as any worldviews that have led to fragmenting or polarizing
approaches to dealing with problems. Alternative theory includes the notions
of self-determination, sustainability, and participation by all communities in
protecting their own environments and planning for their own futures. Alter-
native thinking is inclusive of all groups; it locates power and power sharing
within communities rather than with politicians, professionals, or collectives
of the working class.
Alternative theory argues that decision making should be taken to the
lowest possible level, enabling participation by all people in the community
unit to which they belong and of which they have ownership (Shannon and
Young 2004). Decision making is bottom-up, and accountability is maximized
across all levels of society.
The government’s role under alternative theory is to decentralize power and
encourage power sharing among all interest groups in society. In an alterna-
tive model, the government would encourage and help its citizens to join the
community (cultural group, interest group, geographical group) to which they
will relate and to become involved in decision making relevant to their group,
including decisions about the care of their families. Community develop-
ment, in terms of enabling communities to take control of their own lives, is
the key form of welfare practice (Clarke 2013).
We now turn to personal-level explanatory theories.
Cognitive-Behavioral Theory
Cognitive theory and behavioral theory are often combined into one approach,
drawing on psychological theories of learning, social learning, and cognition.
More recently, mindfulness based practices—involving reflective, nonjudg-
mental awareness of thoughts and feelings—have been incorporated into
cognitive-behavioral theories and approaches to interventions (Beck et al. 2001;
Dobson and Dobson 2009; Follette, Palm, and Pearson 2006; Payne 2014).
Cognitive-behavioral theory offers some explanation of how people develop,
learn, and behave, emphasizing conscious thinking or behavior rather than
unconscious processes. Thinking is linked to behavior, and an individual’s
problems are viewed as arising partly from irrational thinking or from
making poor choices (Beck et al. 2001; Russell, Harris, and Gockel 2008).
A key assumption of this theory is that because behavior and cognitions are
learned, change can be achieved by unlearning old beliefs or behaviors and
learning new, more helpful beliefs and behaviors.
The theory has been critiqued as being too individualized, with undue
emphasis on negative thought processes and on trying to change the individual