Analyzing and Solving Social Problems ● 133political and anti-oppressive in nature, in order to bring real change at the
structural level.
Participation/Democracy
Participation theory, as an approach to change, is based on the idea of self-
determination: that everyone should be involved in deciding what changes they
want for themselves and that people are the best definers of their own interests.
It has been widely used in recent years in the ecological, feminist, indigenous,
and sustainability movements. Ife (2012) argued that participatory democracy
is a fundamental human right and that all voices must be heard from all sec-
tors of society. Key concepts are reciprocal participation, control of decision
making, and community empowerment. Community empowerment from the
bottom up allows for all members in society to have a say on matters that affect
them (Clarke 2013; New Zealand Council of Christian Social Services 2009).
Clarke (2013) suggested that the people most expert at solving a problem are
those suffering deeply from that problem and that they should therefore take
the lead—their definitions, their languages, their solutions, and their processes.
We now turn to three interventive theories that operate at the personal
level.
Behavior Modification and Cognitive Restructuring
Cognitive-behavioral therapy intervenes by identifying irrational thinking
and behaviors and replacing them with more useful thinking and behaviors.
Change might be achieved through behavior modification, whereby people
with problems gradually learn new skills to overcome the issues they face.
Behavioral work involves practicing these new skills in everyday stress-
ful situations. Cognitive restructuring or reframing involves challenging
unhelpful beliefs (such as “I am poor because I am a loser”) and replacing
them with more reasonable beliefs (“I am poor because I am unable to get
a job, and I may find employment in the future”) (Beck et al. 2001). Both
cognitive restructuring and behavior modification require time and practice.
These strategies have been used extensively by those working in the welfare
professions.
Consciousness Raising
Although consciousness raising is a key strategy of class struggle theory at the
structural level, it can also be applied at the personal level. Individuals need
to understand their own oppression and how they might collude in it. Once