ecosystem functioning increases with local diversity,
and thus by proper local management.
In thepatch dynamicsperspective, which is based
on classical metapopulation theory, local commu-
nities are assembled from the regional species pool
and then subjected to local sorting (Bengtssonet al.
2003). At least moderate dispersal between patches
in the region is required for the maintenance of
local and regional diversity, and to ensure reliabili-
ty of ecosystem services (Table 9.1).
When dynamics in local patches are largely de-
termined by dispersal from source patches or ma-
trix habitats (dispersal-driven metacommunities), local
diversity may first increase and then decrease as
immigration of good dispersers increases (Mouquet
and Loreau 2003). Regional diversity is maintained
by patches with different conditions having source
communities with different composition. Dispersal
may prevent adaptation of the local community to
local conditions, which may decrease ecosystem
functioning (Table 9.1). However, when local con-
ditions vary over time, dispersal may still be impor-
tant to maintain ecosystem services (Norberget al.
2001; Loreauet al. 2003). If local diversity and eco-
system functioning also depend on the matrix, the
matrix has to be managed in an appropriate way.
Management implications of theneutralperspec-
tive are less obvious (Table 9.1). This is mainly
because it concerns the long-term evolutionary dy-
namics of large-scale systems, while its short-term
applied ecological consequences are unclear.
Some simple rules of thumb for management
can be suggested by combining these perspectives
(Box 9.1a). First, it is not enough to manage habitats
patch-wise. Instead whole landscapes must be
managed as networks or mosaics (Bengtssonet al.
2003; Lindenmayeret al. 2008). Second, this regional
perspective means that a diversity of conditions
and management strategies should be maintained
in a region, and that a certain degree of connect-
ions between habitat patches is needed to manage
diversity and ecosystem services properly (BoxBox 9.1. Metacommunity theory, landscape management and land use
intensification
a Rules of thumb for landscape management
following from one or several metacommunity
perspectives- Maintain local conditions by management
(species sorting) - Manage not only single patches but whole
landscapes (patch dynamics, dispersal-driven,
neutral) - Maintain diversity of local conditions in
region (species sorting, dispersal-driven,
neutral) - Maintain connections between patches
without homogenizing the landscape
(species sorting, patch dynamics,
dispersal-driven, neutral) - Maintain disturbance regimes close to
natural (patch dynamics, neutral)
b Summary of predictions from
metacommunity theory on the effects of land
use intensification
1 Landscape heterogeneity and higher con-
nectivity in the landscape result in higher
diversity and a larger regional species pool.
This increases the possibility for local ecosys-
tem services to be maintained.
2 The intensity of dispersal influences the ef-
fect of landscape context on metacommu-
nity dynamics.
3 Homogenization of landscapes and land use
intensification create a weedy world.
4 Intensification of land use will affect trophic
structure and strength of local interactions.
The effect will vary depending on relative
patch productivities and the importance of
the matrix.
5 Homogeneous landscapes have lower
diversity and biomass of many functional
groups and thus less efficient ecosystem ser-
vices.120 APPLICATIONS