those in Taiwan and other newly democratizing Asian states. The oldest,
dating just to the 1980s, are GONGOs, which extend the reach of the central,
and in some cases provincial, and local governments. Most ENGOs have
been established for less than a decade, and thus any analysis about their
contribution to the growth of civil society in China has to be provisional. Yet,
on the surface, ENGOs meet relevant criteria: most are situated between the
state and individuals; most have at least a degree of autonomy from the state;
and they form voluntarily.^67
The evolution of ENGOs has been gradual. The stringent regulations on
registration of social associations do not appear to have curbed the rise of new
ENGOs, but if they remain unregistered, they have difficulties raising funds,
attracting members, and they operate in the realm of uncertainty. Few leaders
of the indigenous ENGOs have training in the environmental sciences and
environmental protection work. Although leaders of Beijing-area ENGOs are
familiar with one another’s activities, and may sponsor programs, workshops,
and activities jointly, to the present they have not developed an umbrella
organization, a large-scale coalition of environmental groups. Of greater
importance, only a few ENGOs have developed linkages with NGOs in other
areas, such as poverty alleviation.
In fact, the watchful state has recently organized an environmental peak
association, the All-China Environmental Federation, which seems designed
to preempt coalition formation among ENGOs. On Earth Day 2005, Vice
Premier Zeng Peiyan addressed the inaugural ceremony, hoping that it would
assist the government and link it to the public on environmental issues. The
Federation’s goals include improving the implementation of sustainable
development strategies, enhancing environmental protection in all sectors, and
safeguarding environmental rights and the public interest. Among the
Federation’s leaders are a ‘noticeable number of concurrent or former senior
government officials’. The Ministry of Finance allocated RMB$1.29 million
(US$155000) to its programs.^68
Media in the development of civil society
The ENGOs all engage in environmental education, and the ones we have
examined most closely spread knowledge about endangered and threatened
species and ecosystems. The media are critical to this effort. There are
congenial relations between the Beijing-based and national ENGOs and
China’s media. The print media carry daily stories about threatened species
and ecosystems, pollution, and other environmental problems. Yang
emphasizes the ‘homologous relationships’ ENGOs have with the media, as
they share ‘structurally similar’ positions.^69
Earlier we mentioned the critical view that as China remains a Leninist
state, the party constrains what appears in the press, on TV, and radio.
ENGOs, civil society and biodiversity conservation 181