ARCHAEOLOGICAL VIEWS
62 January/February 2018Performing Psalms in Biblical Times
Thomas Staubli
The Bible does not tell us much about
how psalms were originally performed. Archaeology
and extra-Biblical texts, however, can shed some
light on the music and dance that accompanied
psalms in Biblical times.
When the Book of Psalms was compiled, dispa-
rate pieces of information got integrated into the
psalms’ superscripts or subscripts. These contain
rubrics—comments and directions introducing or
following a psalm. In these notes, ancient scribes
indicated the genre and alleged authorship of
individual psalms and their association with King
David; they also provided instructions on how to
perform the psalms.
Every Bible reader recognizes sentences such as
“To the leader: with stringed instruments. A psalm
of David” (Psalm 4:1). Similar verses are usually not
read aloud—and rightly so, because they are not part
of the hymn. Rather, they are remarks of the editors.
As such, they are commonly printed as headings,
or superscripts, introducing individual psalms—but
this arrangement is by no means certain. In antiq-
uity, subscripts were much more common than
superscripts. When read as subscripts, these “head-
ings” suddenly make more sense.
One example is Psalm 46, which praises God for
his defense of a city and its people. The superscript
reads, “According to the maiden. A song.” That
sounds odd. But if considered a subscript instead,
the note relates to the preceding Psalm 45, which
is a song for the royal wedding and contains versessuch as “in many-colored robes she is led to the
king; behind her the virgins, her companions, fol-
low” (Psalm 45:14). The instruction then fits per-
fectly the content of the hymn.
Most psalm rubrics in the first three books of the
psalter are addressed “to the leader.” This seems to
indicate that they were sung by a chorister alternat-
ing with a choir, which would explain the switching
between the first and third person we find in many
of these psalms.
Rubrics to Psalms 45, 60, 69, and 80 contain the
expression “according to lotuses.” An adequate
interpretation of this instruction had until recently
been obscured by the fact that the Hebrew al-
shoshannim was translated as “according to lilies,”
while in fact shushan is an Egyptian loan-word for
the lotus flower. Lotus was an important decora-
tive element in both Egypt and the Levant, and it
even featured prominently in the Jerusalem Temple.
How is this relevant to a musical performance?
The shape of a lotus plant reminded the ancient
Egyptians of a trumpet. And indeed, in the tomb of
King Tutankhamun (14th century B.C.E.) a copper
trumpet was found with its wooden insert designed
to protect the soft sheet of metal from accidental
deformation when not used; this insert is charac-
teristically decorated with a lotus flower, a symbol
of rebirth and long life.^1 It is possible that also the
silver trumpets made by Moses (Numbers 10:2) bore
a lotus décor. If so, the instruction in Psalms 45, 60,
69, and 80 would refer to the use of trumpets. And
if, further still, the alleged psalm superscripts are in
fact subscripts, “according to lotuses” would belong
to Psalms 44, 59, 68, and 79. Two of these psalms
(59 and 79) are psalms of vengeance, expressing this
plea to God: “Pour out your anger on the nations
that do not know you, and on the kingdoms that do
not call on your name” (79:6). Psalm 44 is a desper-
ate lament to God: “Rouse yourself! Why do you
sleep, O Lord? Awake, do not cast us off forever!”PHOTO THOMAS STAUBLI
TWO KINDS OF LYRES—a larger bass instrument called
nevel and a smaller, box-shaped kinnor—are captured
on this eighth-century B.C.E. relief from Karatepe, Tur-
key. Both were still used in the Second Temple period,
as the coins of Bar-Kokhba attest by picturing the lyres
as a symbol of the then-destroyed Temple.