of Basic Education 9 Transitions and Challenges for the Development
to be now. Almost all now transit to secondary schooling, though those who are
migrants may return to their areas of domicile to maximise their chances of admis-
sion to the better junior and senior secondary schools since they are excluded
from those in Tongzhou. Tongzhou has invested in improved quality and this is
evident in the increasingly common practice of providing single desks for pupils,
the widespread availability of learning and teaching materials, the higher level of
facilities and equipment in most but not all schools, and in low rates of reported
absenteeism, repetition and drop out. The largest change structurally has been the
arrival of large numbers of migrant non-resident children accompanying their par-
ents, who are now in a majority in some schools.
In Ansai significant progress on increasing primary school enrolments had
been made in the late 1980s and female participation had improved dramatically
to approach much more equitable levels. Drop out was a major problem in 1990
but is now considerably reduced and it seems as many as 90 % of those who enrol
reach grade 6. The changes brought about by the declining birth rate, permanent
and temporary migration, and urbanisation have greatly reduced the rural popula-
tion of children. Alongside this schools have been rationalised and now most chil-
dren are enrolled in large central schools with boarding facilities. These schools
have developed considerably since 1990 when many “cave schools” were in exist-
ence. Equipment and furniture is much improved though conditions remain basic
for boarders. Most teachers are now trained and qualified. However, some sub-
stitute teachers remain and have very inferior conditions of service. Teachers are
mostly young or approaching retirement with few in mid career.
Zhaojue had the worst educational conditions of the three case study areas in
1990 and this remains the case. The recent growth in enrolments has more than
doubled numbers in schools, and there are now twice as many schools as in
- The great majority of schools are at village level and many are small and
remote. Enrolment rates are much higher than in 1990, and drop out which was
very high has fallen. Nevertheless it seems unlikely that more than about half of
an age group succeed in completing primary and entering secondary school. There
are still cases of children who do not attend school at all, and about a quarter of
those of school age are estimated to be unenrolled. Temporary migration for work
appears common amongst older children. Substitute teachers remain in Zhaojue.
In contrast to Ansai where some of the teachers are in older age groups there are
very few teachers in Zhaojue who are over 35 years old. There are many more
girls in school than in 1990 but they are still in the minority. HIV/AIDS orphans
and “left behind” children are now prominent as part of the school community and
some special arrangements are made, though there does not appear to be a con-
sistent policy across schools. The physical condition of all but the central primary
and junior secondary schools is poor with dark classrooms, insufficient furniture,
shortages of learning materials, unsatisfactory sanitation and buildings lacking
adequate construction standards.
In each of the case study locations the social and economic changes between
now and 1990 have been dramatic. These are reflected in changes in access to
schooling and the quality of infrastructure. An overall judgement is that the gaps